Raisin in the Sun Free Essays

McNevin O’GarroJanuary 7, 2013 EnglishPeriod: 9 A Raisin in the Sun Lena, Walter, Ruth, and Beneatha are generally individuals from the family named Youngers. The name gets from Walter Senior, Lena’s spouse and Walter Jr. what's more, Beantha’s father. We will compose a custom paper test on Raisin in the Sun or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now He worked eagerly in development, to where he at last died after such an extensive stretch difficult work. Alongside his demise in spite of the fact that came an annuity worth ten thousand dollars toward the family. All the individuals from the family have dreams that are conceded all through the story A Raisin in the Sun. Walter Jr. is a driver who drives affluent white individuals around for pay. With the benefits from his father’s passing he was endeavoring to make his own alcohol store. The ten thousand dollars that arrived in a check to the younger’s loft was his impetus to beginning of his business. During the story Walter says â€Å"Damn my eggs†¦damn all the eggs that ever was† in this statement Walter is meaning that all the fantasies he had aren’t being upheld by his better half or his mom so he should abandon them. Likewise when the check came and Walter’s accomplice, Willy Harris, took 7,000 dollars out of the younger’s ownership Walter’s dream was conceded. Lena otherwise called, Mama, in the younger’s family unit has a fantasy of a wonderful nursery where she can have various diverse dazzling blossoms, developing around, beside her single plant that she is sustaining in the loft with barebones necessities. â€Å"Well, I generally needed me a nursery like I used to see now and then at the rear of the houses down home. This plant is close as I at any point got to having one. † This statement clarifies Mama’s dreams towards having a superior nursery for her to think about her blossoms. At the point when the cash was taken, Mama had just put an up front installment down on the family’s new home in Clybourne Park. Mother demonstrated a solid incredible dissatisfaction in Walter for not having the option to mindfully deal with the family’s cash for even a minor timeframe. Her fantasies toward a delicious nursery were conceded at that moment. Ruth, Walter Jr. ’s spouse who has needed to escape from her rodent opening of a loft for a long time, however hasn’t’ raised enough assets to discover better living courses of action. She works a vocation as a house cleaner for wealthier parcel of individuals outside of her loft. The check coming in, Ruth felt that the cash should all have been spent on Lena because of it formally being her property to which Walter differ since he could utilize it to begin to his alcohol store speculation. Subsequent to learning of the loss of the cash, Ruth was very disheartened to feel that she was not going to make it out of the condo before her infant youngster would be conceived. At the point when Walter at last invested heavily into his family and acknowledged the proposal from the Clybourne Park agent, Mr. Linder, she communicated that she was so glad to at last departure from the condo â€Å"All I can say isâ€if this is my time in lifeâ€my timeâ€to state goodbyeâ€to these breaking dividers! â€and these walking bugs! â€and this confined little storeroom which ain’t now or never was no kitchen! . . at that point I state it uproarious and great, Hallelujah! what's more, farewell wretchedness . . . I don’t never need to see your revolting face again! † She represented the loft as to having an appalling face wherein she didn’t need to see again realizing she was climbing to a superior spot. Beneatha,Walter’s sister, who fantasies about moving beyond the severe way of life she lives under because of the timespan she lives in with persecution on the two blacks, and ladies. Her being both, simply set her back twofold occasions as much for her fantasy to turn into a specialist. With the cash from the check Beneatha had a ton of any expectation of effectively being gotten through her clinical tutoring year where she would procure her degree, to which she could turn into a completely acknowledged specialist. At the point when she took in of the burglary from their group of the ten thousand dollars she felt completely dead inside realizing that she could never transcend the harsh world the existed in. Well †I do †okay? †thank everyone! What's more, pardon me for ever needing to be anything by any stretch of the imagination! (Seeking after him on her knees over the floor) FORGIVE ME, FORGIVE ME, FORGIVE ME! Beneatha at one point hollers out for which she doesn’t realize how to manage her life when everything she done is endeavor however never achieve positive outcomes. After all the families inconveniences, stresses, and issues they conclude at last to proceed onward into their new home in Clybourne Park and experience life there. Albeit a large portion of the family member’s dreams are conceded they despite everything figure out how to thrive throughout everyday life and look forward as opposed to back at what was, however rather into the eventual fate of chances anticipating them at their new network. The most effective method to refer to Raisin in the Sun, Essay models Raisin in the Sun Free Essays McNevin O’GarroJanuary 7, 2013 EnglishPeriod: 9 A Raisin in the Sun Lena, Walter, Ruth, and Beneatha are altogether individuals from the family named Youngers. The name gets from Walter Senior, Lena’s spouse and Walter Jr. also, Beantha’s father. We will compose a custom paper test on Raisin in the Sun or on the other hand any comparative theme just for you Request Now He worked enthusiastically in development, to where he at long last died after such a significant stretch difficult work. Alongside his passing despite the fact that came an annuity worth ten thousand dollars toward the family. All the individuals from the family have dreams that are conceded all through the story A Raisin in the Sun. Walter Jr. is an escort who drives affluent white individuals around for pay. With the annuity from his father’s passing he was endeavoring to make his own alcohol store. The ten thousand dollars that arrived in a check to the younger’s loft was his impetus to beginning of his business. During the story Walter says â€Å"Damn my eggs†¦damn all the eggs that ever was† in this statement Walter is meaning that all the fantasies he had aren’t being bolstered by his significant other or his mom so he should abandon them. Additionally when the check came and Walter’s accomplice, Willy Harris, took 7,000 dollars out of the younger’s ownership Walter’s dream was conceded. Lena otherwise called, Mama, in the younger’s family unit has a fantasy of a wonderful nursery where she can have various distinctive beautiful blossoms, developing around, beside her single plant that she is sustaining in the loft with barebones necessities. â€Å"Well, I generally needed me a nursery like I used to see here and there at the rear of the houses down home. This plant is close as I at any point got to having one. † This statement clarifies Mama’s dreams towards having a superior nursery for her to think about her blossoms. At the point when the cash was taken, Mama had just put an initial installment down on the family’s new home in Clybourne Park. Mother indicated a solid amazing frustration in Walter for not having the option to capably deal with the family’s cash for even a minor timeframe. Her fantasies toward a tasty nursery were conceded at that moment. Ruth, Walter Jr. ’s spouse who has needed to escape from her rodent opening of a loft for a long time, yet hasn’t’ raised enough assets to determine better living game plans. She works an occupation as a house keeper for wealthier parcel of individuals outside of her condo. The check coming in, Ruth felt that the cash should all have been spent on Lena because of it formally being her property to which Walter differ since he could utilize it to begin to his alcohol store speculation. In the wake of learning of the loss of the cash, Ruth was very disheartened to imagine that she was not going to make it out of the condo before her infant kid would be conceived. At the point when Walter at long last invested heavily into his family and acknowledged the proposal from the Clybourne Park agent, Mr. Linder, she communicated that she was so glad to at last getaway from the loft â€Å"All I can say isâ€if this is my time in lifeâ€my timeâ€to state goodbyeâ€to these splitting dividers! â€and these walking insects! â€and this confined little storeroom which ain’t now or never was no kitchen! . . at that point I state it boisterous and great, Hallelujah! furthermore, farewell hopelessness . . . I don’t never need to see your terrible face again! † She exemplified the loft as to having a monstrous face where she didn’t need to see again realizing she was climbing to a superior spot. Beneatha,Walter’s sister, who fantasies about moving beyond the severe way of life she lives under because of the timespan she lives in with mistreatment on the two blacks, and ladies. Her being both, simply set her back twofold occasions as much for her fantasy to turn into a specialist. With the cash from the check Beneatha had a great deal of any desire for effectively being gotten through her clinical tutoring year where she would procure her degree, to which she could turn into a completely acknowledged specialist. At the point when she took in of the theft from their group of the ten thousand dollars she felt completely dead inside realizing that she could never transcend the abusive world the existed in. Well †I do †good? †thank everyone! Furthermore, pardon me for ever needing to be anything by any stretch of the imagination! (Seeking after him on her knees over the floor) FORGIVE ME, FORGIVE ME, FORGIVE ME! Beneatha at one point hollers out for which she doesn’t realize how to manage her life when everything she done is endeavor yet never accomplish positive outcomes. After all the families inconveniences, stresses, and issues they conclude at last to proceed onward into their new home in Clybourne Park and experience life there. Albeit a large portion of the family member’s dreams are

Plath Sample answer

â€Å"Plath’s provocative symbolism serves to feature the serious feelings communicated in her poetry.†I concur totally that Plath utilizes a ton of provocative symbolism to feature the exceptional feelings communicated in her poetry.The sonnet I will examine considering this announcement is ‘Morning Song’.In this sonnet I found a great deal of provocative symbolism that caused me to feel different feelings. One provocative picture that stood apart for me was, ‘new statue’. I discovered this picture provocative in light of the fact that it’s anomalous to portray your new conceived infant as a sculpture. It incited/created outrage and turmoil in me. It drove me mad in light of the fact that I believe that Plath is proposing that her youngster is a belonging. I trust it isn't right to have a kid just to add to your life like another vehicle or home. It likewise confounded me in light of the fact that the title proposes something positive y et to me this picture is negative.Another provocative picture that stood apart for me was, ‘In a drafty historical center, your exposure shadows our safety’. This is a provocative picture since I find that Plath is as a rule brutally legit with regards to her relationship with her significant other. To portray your home just like a drafty exhibition hall is uncommon. It caused me to feel regard towards Plath yet in addition outrage. I regard her for having the option to come clean about her relationship. To communicate the forlornness and discouragement she feels is valiant. Anyway I feel outrage at the possibility that some way or another having a youngster would fix the issues in their relationship, ‘your exposure shadows our safety’.A third provocative picture that stood apart for me was, ‘I’m no more your mother’. This to me is amazingly provocative. Her youngster is just conceived and as of now Plath is feeling that she isn't or oug ht not be a piece of her daughter’s life. This incited/made me have pity and sympathy for Plath. I feel that she’s apprehensive that her kid will before long be an individual and won't need her mother’s guidance or support. This causes me to feel tragic for Plath as a mother, to as of now be considering when her little girl leaves the home as opposed to getting a charge out of the snapshots of her being a youngster. I likewise feel pityâ for Plath since I feel she trusts that her kid won’t need her. I think she feels along these lines in light of the fact that she’s apprehensive her kid will resemble her and take on her depression.The last provocative picture that stood apart for me was, ‘In my Victorian nightgown’. This is a provocative picture in light of the fact that again I think Plath is in effect unmitigatedly legit with regards to her relationship with her better half. I think she utilizes the robe as an image for an absence o f enthusiasm in her relationship with her significant other. This picture caused me to feel regard for Plath. I regard her for having the option to come clean about her relationship. To communicate the dejection and misery she feels is brave particularly when it’s something personal like their sexual relationship.Overall I found that Plath utilizes a great deal of provocative symbolism to say something, to stun and make the peruser pay heed to what she is attempting to state. I additionally feel she utilizes these pictures in an extraordinary manner to incite or make exceptional feelings for the peruser and recommend these are simply similar feelings she is experiencing.

How Do Different Types of Social Support Work

How Do Different Types of Social Support Work Stress Management Relationship Stress Print The Different Types of Social Support By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on November 19, 2019 Social support comes in several categories; learn the best way to support a loved one, and youll both feel less stress!. More in Stress Management Relationship Stress Effects on Health Management Techniques Situational Stress Job Stress Household Stress Every time you reach for the phone when you’ve had a bad day, accept help when you’re overwhelmed, or even search online to get information from someone on how to handle a stressor, you’re demonstrating that you know what research has repeatedly shown: that different types of social support can really help with stress! However, all types of social support don’t affect us the sameâ€"a long talk with an empathic friend feels different from a talk with someone who has plenty of advice to offer, and those types of social support feel different from the type of support a coach or therapist might offer. Is there a best type of social support? And how do the different types of social support affect us? Four Types of Social Support While there are  many different ways that people can support one another, much research has been done on the effects of four distinct types of social support: Emotional Support: This type of support often involves physical comfort such as hugs or pats on the back, as well as listening and empathizing. With emotional support, a friend or spouse might give you a big hug and listen to your problems, letting you know that they’ve felt the same way, too.Esteem Support: This type of social support is shown in expressions of confidence or encouragement. Someone offering esteem support might point out the strengths you’re forgetting you have, or just let you know that they believe in you. Life coaches and many therapists offer this type of support to let their clients know that they believe in them; this often leads to clients believing in themselves more.Informational Support: Those offering informational support do so in the form of advice-giving, or in gathering and sharing information that can help people know of potential next steps that may work well.Tangible Support: Tangible support includes taking on responsibilities for someone else so they can deal with a problem or in other ways taking an active stance to help someone manage a problem they’re experiencing. Someone who offers you tangible support may bring you dinner when you’re sick, help you brainstorm solutions (rather than telling you what you should do, as with informational support), or in other ways help you actively deal with the issue at hand. Which Types of Social Support Work Best? All of these types of social support ‘work’, but not with everybody, and not in the same ways. Different people have preferences for a certain type or a combination or a few types of social support. It’s important to note, however, that the wrong type of support can actually have a detrimental effect, so it helps to know what type of social support is needed in each situation. Here’s some of what the research has found: You really can have too much support! One study, which involved 103 husbands and wives who completed surveys five times over their first five years of marriage, looked at how support was provided and measured marital satisfaction. It found that too much informational support (usually in the form of unsolicited advice) can actually be worse than no support at all. (I found it reassuring, however, that you can’t give too much esteem support; no amount of esteem support is ‘too much’, as long as it’s genuine.)Too little support is more common than too much. The same study found that about two-thirds of men and at least 80% of women found themselves receiving too little support, whereas just one-third of men and women said that they were receiving more support than they wanted.Another study, which examined 235 newlyweds, found that both partners are happier if the husband gets the types of social support he needs most. For women, it was enough that the husband was just trying to offer support, even if he didn’t always offer the right kind. The important thing to remember is that there are different types of social support  and that you may need to ask for the specific type you need, especially in marriage. The idea that simply being more supportive is better for your marriage is a myth, says Erika Lawrence, associate professor of psychology in the UI College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and lead researcher in these studies. Often husbands and wives think, If my partner really knows me and loves me, he or she will know Im upset and will know how to help me. However, thats not the best way to approach your marriage. Your partner shouldnt have to be a mind reader. Couples will be happier if they learn how to say, This is how Im feeling, and this is how you can help me. Don’t assume that you know what type of support your spouse, friends or relatives crave; it’s always best to check-in with people to see if the support you’re offering is hitting the mark. If not, it’s important to open up a discussion to see what types of social support are needed here. And be aware of what types of support feel the best for you, so you can communicate this to your loved ones as well. It’s not fair to expect people to read your mind when it comes to social supportâ€"and it’s not effective either. Just ask for what you need.

Immigrant Children A Growing Problem For American Schools

Selamawi immigrated to Chicago from Ethiopia at the age of seven, and later graduated from Harvard. Before immigrating to America, Selamawi experienced famine, a civil war, and spent five years of his childhood in a refugee camp. Rather than holding him back, his struggles in life made him thrive in American schools. Like Selamawi, many immigrants come into this country with unique backgrounds and appreciate education. In spite of Selamawi’s story, with more and more immigrant children coming to America, many question how sufficiently these students can be educated in the school system. Others question what benefits come out of letting in immigrant children and introducing them into American schools. Popular belief has it that immigrant children are a growing problem for American schools, however immigration is only beneficial to American students and schools. The key to a diverse education is a diverse student body. Today, more and more of the student body is made up of immigrant children who aid education with their various cultures. Mary Tamer, a Harvard writer for Usable Knowledge, describes how immigrant students better race relationships and bring a diverse cultural background to the classroom. In other words, when immigrant students are in American schools they bring their cultural differences with them and help other students better understand those differences. For example, a cultural class is taught in most schools so that students can learn about various waysShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Struggle To Be An All-American Girl1745 Words   |  7 PagesWong is a Chinese American playwright that wrote â€Å"The Struggle to Be an All-American Girl† originally published in the Los Angeles Times in 1990. In her short story, she describes her resentment of her Chinese roots and her protest against her parents that want her to learn and appreciate her heritage and Chinese culture. Her short story exposes the pres sure that immigrant children place on themselves to fit into the dominant culture. The proposed solutions to fixing this problem is thinking and implementingRead MoreNew York Schools Struggle With New Rules Essay1286 Words   |  6 Pagesarticle, New York Schools Struggle With New Rules to Help Students Learning English, by Elizabeth A. Harris from the New York Times, documents the current struggle of New York state public school ESL programs to fully accommodate the immigrant students’ needs. Overall, the ESL program is not effective in helping second language students catch up in subjects taught in English. In addition, the supply and demand is heavily unbalanced. More immigrant students are enrolling in public schools yet there isRead More Immigrants and Immigration - Blessing or Burden? Essay1073 Words   |  5 PagesImmigrants and Immigration - Blessing or Burden? Are immigrants a fortune of diversity, or a crushing burden? America has longed battled the issue about immigration. Today people in general have a very mixed feeling about the issue of immigration. Immigrants escaping from prosecution built the United States. Today, America firmly tries to solve many of our economical, political and social difficulties due to the burden of the thousand immigrants that enters the United States. Many people argueRead MoreEssay about We Must Educate the Children of Illegal Immigration750 Words   |  3 PagesImmigration laws have been a subject of debate throughout American history, especially in states such as California and Texas, where immigrant populations are high. Recently, some citizens have been questioning whether we should continue to educate the children of illegal immigrants. While this issue is steeped in emotional controversy, we must not allow disruptive us against them rhetoric to cloud our thinking. Yes, educating undocumented immigra nts costs us, but not educating them would cost us muchRead More We Must Educate the Children of Illegal Immigrants Essay712 Words   |  3 PagesImmigration laws have been a subject of debate throughout American history, especially in states such as California and Texas, where immigrant populations are high. Recently, some citizens have been questioning whether we should continue to educate the children of illegal immigrants. While this issue is steeped in emotional controversy, we must not allow divisive us against them rhetoric to cloud our thinking. Yes, educating undocumented immigrants costs us, but not educating them would cost us muchRead More Its Time for Immigration Reform Essay833 Words   |  4 Pagesthe current level of immigration as anti-immigrant. This is biased and deceitful. Its like saying that anyone who doesnt want 10 or 12 children is anti-children. The truth is that many people are pro-immigration but recognize that the present level of immigration is unsustainable and will eventually be detrimental to Americans and immigrants alike.    One often-used irrelevant argument is that we are a nation of immigrants. While true, it does not shed light on theRead MoreImmigration Of The United States1447 Words   |  6 Pagesis the home of millions of Americans who are the descendants of immigrants. They were forced to leave their homeland because of the overbearing power of their leaders, crimes they may have committed, oppression and other disasters. Providing a safe haven from those being treated poorly by their country or just providing a new place for people just looking for a fresh start has been America’s tradition since the beginning. Immigrants have played a big role in American history since July 4, 1776 (America)Read MoreShould Immigration Be Illegal Immigrants?1257 Words   |  6 Pagesmust ban immigrants!†, â€Å"Immigrants take Americans job opportunities† are some of the statements that stray away from the reality of the real debated issue of immigration . Today many Americans presume that immigrants slow the growth of the economy and often clash w ith American workers. Also, immigrants are often accused of stealing jobs and occupying land and space that they are not entitled to. However, do immigrants provide more than just a burden to the nations economy? Do immigrants play a biggerRead MoreIllegal Immigration Is A Problem That Affects All Americans964 Words   |  4 PagesIn one way or another we are all immigrants, our ancestors came to America in search of the American dream and freedom of the promise land. Back in the late eighteen to early nineteen hundreds the government encouraged immigration. The reasoning for this was because America was growing and their territories were expanding they were in need of help with the continuing growth of our country. Ellis Island could see up right to over a thousand immigrants a day and they were welcome with open arms. AmericaRead MoreThe Face Of Education And The Changes It Has Undertaken Throughout History1425 Words   |  6 Pagesalters the fabric of the American society. To provide an educated workforce for the future has been the job of educators for centuries, but with a greater immigration movement and presence, an educator s’ ability is limited and the fate of such children are left to suffer. Pulling from America’s position as a â€Å"melting pot† of different cultures and people, students should not be subjugated to poverty and educational ignorance just because of their status as an â€Å"illegal immigrant,† a distinction made

Tremendous Spirit and Feminism Displayed in Charlotte...

Tremendous spirit. The enviable trait that Jane Eyre from Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre possesses is what stimulates her to achieve self-actualization despite the fact that she is a woman. True feminism isn’t as violent as a handful of vicious extremists claim it to be. The accurate definition of feminism is â€Å"the doctrine advocating women’s social, political, civil, educational and all other rights as equal to those of men.† Women of Charlotte Bronte’s era did not have basic rights such as the aforementioned. The feminist movement in the Victorian Era had only just begun and Jane Eyre was far ahead of her peers. Published in 1847, the bildungsroman novel of Jane Eyre was an intricate one, with subtle feminism carefully woven in it,†¦show more content†¦Jane flowers under Ms. Temple’s meticulous attention and finds a new thirst for learning which will stay with her her entire life. The education she receives from Lowood proves to be an indispensable one, for she becomes a teacher herself and wishes to become dependent. The desire for travel and a steady income leads Jane to advertise as a governess, a job most intelligent women would have spurned, for they were often paid little and had awful, spoiled children who were incredibly disinterested in the lessons of their governesses. Her advertisement was seen by the housekeeper of Thornfield Hall and a job was offered to her there which she took up to provide for herself and to confront the world. Jane Eyre’s main love interest, the wealthy and much older, Mr. Rochester, is also one of Jane’s antagonists. Their courtship was largely unorthodox. She was his illegitimate daughter’s governess and he was her employer. She lived at his estate while they were courting and that gave way to many difficult temptations. Jane stayed true to herself and did not allow for Mr. Rochester to ply her into whatever he wished. She respects herself too much to consent to his power plays. Jane’s passionate character is exemplified here, when she tells Mr. Rochester that she does not know what to make of him for she stills believes that he will marry another woman of more beauty and class. This is where she gives her famous speech: Do you think I can stay to become nothing to

International business Free Essays

The article chosen for this paper is Andrew Ross Sorkin’s Study Says Private Equity Isn’t Big Job Killer published in New York Times on January 25, 2008. Selection of the publication is beyond any ambiguity. The New York Times is a media company established in America. We will write a custom essay sample on International business or any similar topic only for you Order Now The company is best known world wide for publishing the news paper â€Å"The New York Times† which is its namesake. The New York Times is considered as one among the prominent media companies in the world.   With a total of $3.3 billion revenue in the year 2006, the company became the top media company not only in United States but also in the whole world. The selection of this article is also logical because it presents a timely discussion of theories related to international business and that too on the parameters of global business perspectives. It is widely believed that to survive as a corporate sector in the long term it is extremely important to mould the organization into an international sector. Therefore, it’s that much obvious to plan the strategies of the company in accordance to international trade sequences. It is important evaluate the marketing policies to survive in the international market and analyze the effectiveness of the prevailing marketing plan. It is quite true that the activation of the international strategy would collide with that of the plans implemented while operating in the local market. After reading and analyzing the article it was evident that this piece of text would be used for the paper as it deals with a organizational theory that is extremely important in relation to the principles of international business more so in the parameters of today’s global business perceptions. It is important to understand the positive aspects of private equity and that layoffs and not evident conclusion private equity involvement in sectors particularly in the context of international business of the global economy. (Sorkin, 2008) Over the next 50 years, the BRICs economies including Brazil, Russia, India and China are probable to become a much larger force in the world economy. The rate of GDP growth, income per capita and currency movements in the BRICs economies together shows possibility of their growing larger than the G6 in US dollar terms in less than 40 years. By 2025 they could attain over half the size of the G6. Of the recent G6, only the US and Japan are among the six largest economies in US dollar terms in 2050. The listing of the ten largest economies of the world may seem relatively dissimilar in 2050. The prevalent economies in the world (by GDP) may not continue to be the richest (by income per capita), thus making premeditated preferences for firms more intricate. The only thing growing faster than China is the publicity of China. In January, the gross domestic product (GDP) of People’s Republic of China’s surpassed that of Britain and France, thus making China the world’s fourth largest economy. In December, it was publicized that China substituted the United States as the world’s biggest exporter of technology products. Many economists forecast that the Chinese economy will reach to the second position as compared to the United States by 2020, and may possibly go beyond it by 2050. Western investors sleet China’s sound economic rudiments, such as considerably a high savings rate, vast labor pool, and strong work ethic and capability of glossing over its flaws. Among the Business people China is popular for being concurrently the world’s greatest manufacturer and its big markets. Private equity firms are hunting the Middle Kingdom for achievements. Chinese Internet companies are obtaining prices of dotcom age on the NASDAQ. Some of the world’s foremost financial organizations, including Bank of America, Citibank, and HSBC, have invested billions on China’s fiscal prospect by attaining minority risks in China’s state managed banks, although many of them are precisely bankrupt. Even every large global automobile company has built or is preparing plans to build new amenities in China, in spite of a swamped market and plummeting profit margins. Under such parameters the article Study Says Private Equity Isn’t Big Job Killer presents a timely discussion of international business relation with a focus on the different arguments on the subject of private equity interventions and its relation with layoffs and job creations. It is very relevant because with economy fast becoming global it is evident that international huge players like China would be involved. Thus it is better to convince these counties to allow foreign private equity into business so that multinationals would be able to reap a good harvest out of these economies. References: Sorkin, Andrew Ross; (January 25, 2008); Study Says Private Equity Isn’t Big Job Killer; New York Times; retrieved on 26.01.2008 from How to cite International business, Essay examples International Business Free Essays office, that accured the Japanese government and Fuji of â€Å"Unfair trading practices†. According to the petition, the Japanese government helped to create a ‘ profile sanctuary’ for Fuji in Japan by systematically denying Kodak access to Japanese distribution channels for consumer film and paper. Kodak claims Fuji has effectively shut Kodak products out of four distributors that have a 70% share of the photo distribution market. We will write a custom essay sample on International Business or any similar topic only for you Order Now Fuji has an equity position in two of the distributors, gives large year –end relates and cash payments to all four distributors as a reward for their loyalty to Fuji, and owns stakes in the banks that finance them. Kodak also claims that Fuji uses similar tactics to control 430 wholesale photo furnishing labs in Japan to which it is the exclusive supplier. Moreover Kodak’s petition claims that the Japanese government has actively encourages these practices. But Fuji a similar counter arguments relating to Kodak in U. S. nd states bluntly that Kodak’s charges are a clear case of the pot calling the kettle back. (a) What was the critical catalyst that led Kodak to start taking the Japanese market seriously? (b) From the evidence given in the case do you think Kodak’s charges of unfair trading practices against Fuji are valid? Support your answer. CASE 2 (20 Marks) Two Senior executives of world’s largest firms with extensive holdings outside the home country speak. Company A : â€Å"We are a multinational firm. We distribute our products in about 100 countries. We manufacture in over 17 countries and do research and development in three countries. We look at all new investment projects both domestic and overseas using exactly the same criteria†. The execution from company A continues, â€Å" of course the most of the key ports in our subsidiaries are held by home country nationals. Whenever replacements for these men are sought, it is the practice, if not the policy, to look next to you at the lead office and pick some one (usually a home country national) you know and trust†. Company B : â€Å" We are multinational firm. Our product division executives have worldwide profit responsibility. As our organisational chart shows, the united states is just one region on a par with Europe, Latin America, Africa etc, in each division†. The executive from Company B goes on to explain, â€Å"the worldwide Product division concept is rather difficult to implement. The senior executives incharge of this divisions have little overseas experience. They have been 3 | P a g e promoted from domestic ports and tend to view foreign consumers needs as really basically the same as ours. Also, product division executives tend to focus on domestic market, because it generates more revenue than foreign market. The rewards are for global performance, but strategy is to focus on domestic. Most of the senior executives simply do not understand what happens overseas and really do not trust foreign executives, even those in key portions? Questions : 1 Which company is truly Multinational ? Why? 2 List three differences between Company , Multi National company and Trans Multi National Company How to cite International Business, Papers International Business Free Essays string(102) " middle class Chinese people would create an explosive growth opportunity for the amusement industry\." Abstract Walt Disney is a well diversified amusement company with global presence and China is a blooming market and the global economic engine. With the theme park business in both the US and Europe already saturated, and a dwindling number of visitors affecting the profits, it is an opportunistic moment for Disney to enter China. The proposed joint venture with the State owned ‘Shanghai Shendi Group’ would definitely guarantee the government support and remove any possible administrative hurdles that would otherwise hamper any new business investment in a foreign land. We will write a custom essay sample on International Business or any similar topic only for you Order Now The prevailing climate of political stability, economic viability and significant growth prospects that China offers and the comparative economic stagnation in US and Europe, offer strong economic reasons for Disney to venture into China which holds great possibilities for future business growth. Introduction The Walt Disney parks and resorts is one of the leading entertainment businesses in operation across the world. With more than 66,000 employees and well over $1.2 billion in annual payroll, Disney is most visited theme park and recreational resort in the US. (Kok, 2009) Originally started as Disneyland in California 1955, Disney’s business has today rapidly expanded with several theme parks and resorts across America, Canada, Europe, Japan and Hongkong. With the theme park business virtually saturated in the US and Europe, Disney is now actively looking for expansion of its multi billion dollar entertainment business into mainland China. The robust economic growth of China and its growing middle class population present an opportunistic environment for Disney, the leading entertainment theme park in the world. However, opening a theme park and successfully running it in a different country is not so easy. Disney’s own past experience reveals the phenomenal success in Ja pan while the parks in Paris and Hongkong are reportedly running loses. (SMG, 2009) This paper would address the international business issues, discuss the market conditions and recommend an entry strategy that is most conducive for Disney’s breakthrough into China. Disney in China China presents a huge business prospect for Disney. Chinese GDP has been growing at an average of around 10 % every year over the last decade or so. (Holmes, 2011) Particularly with the backdrop of the economic stagnation in the US and Europe, the thriving economic growth makes China the engine of the global economy in the years ahead. Also, China has the largest population in the world and with this phenomenal surge in its economy a great number of Chinese people are now within the middle class section of the society. Furthermore, since the entertainment industry is one of the fastest growing industries, tapping into this section of the population that is willing to spend a lot for entertainment is a judicious business policy. Disney has been trying over the last two decades to gain entry into China but had been rejected by the protectionist government polices. Currently however, Chinese government has approved Disney to set up theme parks and stores across the country. Disney has to capitalize on this new window of opportunity and commence its Chinese operations as early as possible. The next few sections will discuss the political, socioeconomic and technological factors present in China as well as the strength and weaknesses of Disney and the opportunities and threats that the company has in setting up its entertainment business in China. PEST analysis Political Factors Political factors are crucial for the establishment of any business as they directly impact the macro environmental variables. China has remained a politically stable country since the 1980’s and also the previously strong communist centric focus is now slowly giving way to the possibility of a democratic transition. Even the Chinese premier Mr. Hu openly expressed his thoughts about this when he said that â€Å"There is a need to †¦ hold democratic elections according to the law; have democratic decision-making, democratic management, as well as democratic supervision; safeguard people’s right to know, to participate, to express and to supervise.† (Hill, 2011) Both the domestic policies as well as the international relationships of China over the last decade or so attest to the inclination of the Chinese government to create a stable and secure national structure as the basis for propelling its continuing economic growth. With the Country entering the WTO in 2001, there has been a string of policy changes that led to lesser government intervention in developmental projects and greater encouragement for industrial investors. Economic Factors China is the fastest growing economy in the world and as mentioned earlier, the country has witnessed stable GDP growth averaging around 10% over the last two decades or so creating a favorable economic climate for new investment. By the measure of GDP, China currently ranks as the sixth biggest country in the world. (Cui, 2009) Availability of resources, low cost labor force and the infrastructural improvements including mega projects that guarantee availability of power to match the growth pace of new industries are some of the favorable factors that sustain this continuous economic growth in china. These are also factors that encourage foreign investment. China’s entry into the WTO and its subsequent open policies that allowed 100% FDI in many sectors including the energy and retail sectors saw the phenomenal surge in foreign direct investment into the country. The following table released by the Chinese government indicates the latest figures about the number of FDI proj ects as well as the investments during the previous year. The strength of the Chinese economy could be measured by its continued ability to attract FDI inflows even when the developed economies of the US and the Europe were reeling under recession. In 2011 during the recession in Europe, China attracted a record $116 billion in FDI. (Edwards, 2012) Also, as the industrial progress and the continuous economic growth of China continues, the standards of living of the huge Chinese population also continues to increase which only translates to increased purchasing power and increased demands for amenities. In particular, the entertainment spending of middle class Chinese people would create an explosive growth opportunity for the amusement industry. You read "International Business" in category "Essay examples" Social Factors Social factors should also be assessed before any investment venture. China has a huge population in the middle aged segment. Currently the population segment in the range of 15 and 64 represents the majority in China. (Banister et.al, 2010) A significant number of Chinese people are still in their twenties and middle age which is the target population for the theme parks. Also, traditionally Chinese are a nuclear family and hence theme parks are usually visited as a family. Also the huge population of China implies that the aging population does not create an economic stagnation as retiring workforce is rapidly replaced by skilled workers. (Banister et.al, 2010) Technological Factors China is a technologically advanced economy and hence there is immense scope for innovation in the amusement market. Even in the local amusement market there is a constant surge of innovative amusement themes and new facilities to entertain the public. There would be no dearth of talent and lack of scope for the application of technology into the development of the theme parks. Only last year an international ‘Theme parks expansion Summit’ was organized in the country and several new technologically innovative solutions were disclosed. For instance, Nanotron technologies, one of the main sponsors of the conference introduced the ‘Child Loss Protection System‘(CLOPS) and spoke about its introduction into the Chinese Theme parks, while another company, Dynamic Motion Rides, introduced the 4D simulation effects into the Theme parks. (Blooloop, 2011) So the Chinese theme park industry is a technologically thriving and competitive industry. SWOT analysis Strengths Financial Might Disney has a powerful financial base and there fore could invest significantly for innovative attractions and features in the proposed Theme park. Disney already has a dedicated channel in China which it could utilize for marketing purposes. Already the company has proposed to invest as much as $3.8 billion for setting up its Shanghai theme park. (Rapoza, 2012). Disney’s huge experience (almost 80 years) in the entertainment industry is one of it’s main plus points. (De Groote, 2008) Brand Recognition Disney is a well established brand across the world. Even in China Disney’s Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck characters are well known among the public. Disney could capitalize on its brand value to attract public to its theme park. For a new entrant into the Chinese market, Disney’s brand recognition would definitely ease the difficulties which any new and unrecognized brand would face. One other advantage for Disney is the qualified and educated workforce that it employs. Disney also has a variety of attractions and thematic features that would help bring more people into the theme parks. (De Groote, 2008) Opportunities Globalization and the easing of barriers of entry in many countries provide Disney the ideal opportunity for expansion and with its financial muscle Disney can easily carve a niche market for its amusement parks in the global arena. Since China has already given the green signal and allowed Disney to enter the market it is the ideal time for the company to establish itself and gain a significant share of the growing Chinese amusement industry. Its diversified products and established brand power give it a clear advantage compared to any other international entrant into China. Weaknesses Disney is known to suffer from management problems. Its international diversification has furthered its management woes. Managing over 1, 37,000 employees across the world is not an easy job and it leads to communication problems and administrative bottlenecks. (De Groote, 2008) With the proposed expansion in China there will be a significant addition to the workforce which would complicate the management still further. Corporate officers are frequently shuffled across which also contributes to management difficulties. Chinese customers though they are huge in numbers and willing to pay could not be expected to spend as much as American customers would. The increasing fixed costs which directly relates with expansion and the increasing operating costs due to its large workforce imply that Disney has to spend considerably with any new venture. Furthermore, in the case of Disneyland in Paris the French government contributed over a billion dollars to help out Disney during the initia l struggling phase. The same could not be expected from the Chinese government if Disney ventures alone. (De Groote, 2008) Its main threats are from a growing number of Chinese theme parks that are more culturally oriented and cater to the tastes of the local population. Disney has to modify its themes to make them appealing to the cultural tastes of the Chinese people. The Chinese currency value fluctuation is one other major issue to be considered. Strategic Entry Entry into the Chinese market involves huge amounts of investment. As already indicated, Disney plans to invest as much as $3.8 billion into the Chinese venture. Though Disney has the financial might to bear the expenses by itself it would be a prudent risk management strategy to involve a large number of outside participants to cover the initial investment costs. In fact, Disney employed such a strategy when it entered the European market. The Saudi Prince Alwaleed owned 10% of the company stocks while the 50.2% were owned by others while Disney itself owned 39.8% of the stocks. (De Groote, 2008) In the case of Disney in Japan it was a Licensing agreement between Walt Disney and Oriental Land Corporation of Japan with Disney getting 7% of the sale proceeds in exchange for transfer of technical and managerial knowledge. (Misawa, 2005) Unlike the retain industry or the energy industry , the Chinese government is not opening up for a 100% FDI in the entertainment industry and has so fa r only agreed to a joint venture. This is however, a welcome opportunity for Disney as not only the cost is shared but also a joint venture with the State owned ‘Shanghai Shendi Group’ would definitely guarantee the government support and remove any possible administrative hurdles that would otherwise hamper any new business investment in a foreign land. (Bloomberg, 2010) With risk sharing also divided between the two, Disney can look forward to capitalizing on the great market prospects that China promises. Disney’s entry into the blooming Chinese amusement park industry with the government backing (as a joint venture) would be an ideal entry strategy for the Company. Conclusion Walt Disney is a well diversified amusement company with global presence. China is a blooming market and the global economic engine. With the theme park business in both the US and Europe already saturated, and a dwindling number of visitors affecting the profits, it is an opportunistic moment for Disney to enter China, the economic powerhouse of the world. As indicated by both the PEST analysis as well as the SWOT study, Disney is well poised for a successful venture into china. Since 100% FDI is not permitted in the Chinese entertainment industry, the proposed joint venture with the Chinese State owned firm, is a good entry strategy for Disney in China. Such an approach shares the investment costs, promotes equal interests in the operation and removes any possible administrative hindrances as well as contributes to equal risk sharing. The prevailing climate of political stability, economic viability and significant growth prospects that China offers and the comparative economic st agnation in US and Europe, offer strong economic reasons for Disney to venture into China which holds great possibilities for future business growth. References Bloomberg (2010), Walt Disney signs joint venture to build first mainland China Theme Park, viewed march 28th 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-05/disney-signs-joint-venture-contract-with-shanghai-for-first-park-in-china.html com, (2011), China Theme Park Expansion Summit : A Shanghai Success, viewed Ma 28th 2012, Lam Hing Kok, (2009), Walt Disney employees training participation and its effect of employees’ intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction and affective commitment. Viewed March 26th 27th 2012, Frank Holmes, (2011) Four Examples of China’s amazing growth, viewed March 27th 2012, Judith Banister, David E. Bloom, and Larry Rosenberg, (2010), Population Aging and Economic Growth in China, PGDA Working paper no 53. Kennet Rapoza, (2012), Shanghai Disneyland driving foreign investment into the city, viewed March 28th 2012, Mitsura Misawa, 2005, Tokyo Disneyland, Licensing vs. Join Venture, University of Hong Kong, Harvard Business Online†¦ Patrick De Groote, (2008), Globalization of Commercial Theme Parks Case: The Walt Disney Company, Agroinform Publishing House, Budapest. Viewed March 28th 2012, Steven Hill, (2011), China’s tentative steps towards democracy, viewed March 27th 2012, cn (2009). Disney: five theme parks in a different operating condition. Viewed November 4, 2009, http://www.smgbb.cn/zixun/shishi/2009-11-04/342208.html Nick Edwards, (2012), China FDI fall puts potential policy response in focus, viewed March 27th 2012 , Invest in China, (2012), Statistics about utilization of Foreign investment in China from Jan to Dec 2012, viewed Mar 28th 2012, http://www.fdi.gov.cn/pub/FDI_EN/Statistics/FDIStatistics/StatisticsofForeignInvestment/t20120119_140572.htm Xiaojun Cui, (Nov 2009), In depth analysis of PC industry in China, International Journal of Business and Management, Vol 4, no 11, How to cite International Business, Essay examples

Tips for Using Flip Charts More Effectively Essay Example For Students

Tips for Using Flip Charts More Effectively Essay One should not assume that investing a lot of money in high tech visual aids equipment will make your presentation. The best visuals have been and still are the simplest. Remember, the purpose of using visual aids is to enhance your presentation, not upstage it. Since most presentations are levered before small groups poof people or less, the flip chart is the perfect size. I feel the flip chart will continue to be the workhorse of most training seminars. There are several advantages Of using a flip chart. Here are just a few: 1. Flip charts do not need electricity You dont need to worry if the bulb Will burn out or worry that you forgot the extension chord. 2. Hip charts are economical They do not require you to use any special films or printers to produce them. 3. Color can be added very easily ; An inexpensive box Of flip chart racers allows you all the creativity you want. 4. Flip charts allow spontaneity . Any last minute changes can be easily made. In todays world of high tech computers, fancy software and sophisticated infomercials, many presenters today feel they have to create a presentation which shows off their ability to use computers and their latest clip art library, Although the software available today does allow everyone the ability to create colorful slides and overheads, we often tint that the visuals become the presentation and not the speaker. As a speaker, your visual aids should not be the presentation. You are! Even though flip charts are low tech, they are reliable and dont require any special skill to use them but here are some tips to help you use them effectively. 1. The best flip chart stands have clamps at the top and will hold most type of flip chart pads Most allow you to hang your flip charts while some stands will only allow you to prop them up. Dont wait until the last minute to find this out 2. Make sure the flip charts you use will fit the flip chart stand you will be using. Some have different spaced holes at the top. 3. Flip chart pads are usually sold in packages Of two and come either plain or with grid lines on them. Using the pad with grid lines makes your job easier for drawing straight lines and keeps your text aligned. Also, make sure the pad has perforations at the top to allow easier removal of sheets. Have seen many presenters struggle to tear Off a sheet evenly. 4. When preparing your charts, it is best to first design your charts on paper first before drawing them on the actual flip chart pad. 5. Lightly write your text in pencil first before using the actual flip chart markers. This will allow you to make any adjustments with text spacing and any figures you will be drawing. Do NOT use all block letters (UPPER CASE). Using upper and lower case letters makes it easier to read. Like to use the 7 x 7 rule. Have no more than 7 words on each line and no more than 7 lines to a sheet. Using a 6 x 6 rule is even better. 6. Use flip chart markers and not regular magic markers. Flip chart markers will not bleed through the paper. Also, they do not have as throng a smell as regular markers. You can also find scented markers. They usually come in various fruit scents. 7. Avoid using the colors yellow, pink, or orange. These are extremely difficult for the audience to see. Dont make your audience have to strain their eyes to see your points. Avoid using too many colors. Losing one dark color and one accent color works best. 8. You can write lightly in pencil any notes next to key points you need. The audience wont be able to see them. You may also write what is on the next sheet. Knowing this will allow you to properly introduce your next sheet. . If you make any mistakes you can use white out to correct any small errors. For larger areas, cover the mistake with a double layer of flip chart paper and correct the error, 10. Have a blank sheet of paper between each of your text sheets, This will prevent the written material from other sheets to peek through. 11. Properly store and transport your flip charts in a case or the cardboard box that some come in. This will protect your flip charts and keep them fresh and ready to SE each time, Take great care of your flip charts. .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .postImageUrl , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:hover , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:visited , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:active { border:0!important; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:active , .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905 .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua6e7637ea95a69fd397ea5349c972905:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Different Types of Charts EssayI have some flip charts have used over 100 times and they still look as good as new. Making prepared flip charts can take a considerable amount of time. Make sure you start preparing your charts early enough so you can review them and make any changes or corrections before hand. It takes practice to learn how to print neatly. If you do not have neat printing, ask someone who does prepare them for you. A poorly prepared flip chart can be very distracting. The most important point to member in preparing your flip charts is to start preparing them early.

Ulysses by James Joyce

Hypothetical Case Study Of Childhood Sexual Abuse Social Work Essay Example

Hypothetical Case Study Of Childhood Sexual Abuse Social Work Essay Example Hypothetical Case Study Of Childhood Sexual Abuse Social Work Essay Hypothetical Case Study Of Childhood Sexual Abuse Social Work Essay Covering with a instance of kid sexual maltreatments such as Melissas, demands a batch of attempt. There is a enticement to react to the kid with compassion. However, to turn to the issue of sexual maltreatment, one must make something more than attention deeply. Before one can sufficiently measure or handle a sexually abused kid, it is critical to hold a solid cognition of how sexual maltreatment and how it happens, the inauspicious impacts of the maltreatment on the kid, relationship and behavioural jobs of the kid caused by the maltreatment. In this instance it is of import to study development of childhood in a normal manner, and see how it differs from development jobs seen in the kids who have undergone child maltreatment. Prior to originating a program of intervention, it is critical to hold cognition of why sexual maltreatment occurred in a peculiar scenario. Discussion Trauma appraisal should besides be done before intervention. Trauma appraisal is an attack used to grok the effects of sexual maltreatment on the kid and to look into the extent of injury. It helps one step the kid s positions of the the past and current effects of the maltreatment. However, Trauma appraisal does non seek to unclutter up jobs, but instead to cognize the impact of maltreatment on the kid, comprehend the harm, and think of the intervention needed. Assessment is a route map for intervention. Because of its insouciant format, it will assist to construct common apprehension with the kid as one collects of import information. It is critical to see the undermentioned issues while taking the appraisal, as these will hold an influence the intervention determinations: What is the connexion of the victim to the maltreater? What is the degree of stableness in the household that the kid comes from? What are the hazard factors involved, Should the kid still remain with the household or move? , what function is the tribunal playing in the instance? Finally, to come up with the applicable intervention program, the appraisal must analyze all developmental issues, measure societal countries and measure behaviour in conformity with what is at that place in normal development. Therapy based on this rating will turn to the kid s demands one at a clip. Treatment is the processs of helping the kid learn to distinguish between her healthy and destructive header ability ( Flaherty et al, 2006 ) . Choosing the manner of intervention will depend on the ends for the kid developed from the assessment study, the coordination between the aim and service being thought of, and the kid s penchant and likeliness of taking portion in and net income from the intervention that is offered. In rule, effectual intervention will cut down the badness of symptoms and protect against suspended start of emotional upsets. Osmond and co-workers, explain intervention ends as affecting: Leting safe release of the feelings, Get the better ofing negative and suicidal behaviour, Helping the kid to understand the portion of her thought that has been affected by maltreatment and besides assisting her correct those deformations, helping the kid to get the better of self-blame and hatred, Helping the kid to construct in herself sense of trust and have a hereafter that is positive. Guaranting the kid achieve a sense of position about the maltreatment and to hold the emotional infinite necessary to maintain the torment from aching her in the hereafter Intervention program Therapy of child sexual maltreatment is an luxuriant process. Emotionally, it stimulates you to stay indifferent the center of a extremely charged instance. Intellectually, it requires that you have the cognition of the impacts of maltreatment on both the kid and the household, and besides the beginnings of the job. Practically, it demands that one collaborates with assorted professionals in the attempts to make what s best for the sexually abused kid In Melissa s instance the most appropriate program of intercession would utilize is trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy. Trauma focused cognitive therapy is grounded on the theory where it is explained that traumatic events conveying out stuffs that are hard for the kid to group, kind out and put it into their prevalent strategy ( English et Al, 2004 ) . On cases when the kid may non wholly understand a traumatic event, the emotions which are normally strong that come from the traumatic event are unprocessed. When the kid tries to treat that information ; facts are either distorted to suit in the kingdom of what is already known or understood or may falsify the beliefs to associate together the unrefined stuff into their prevalent strategy. Both are bad since they lead to guilt and dishonor and besides self incrimination. To counter act this, the kid should be shown how to work on confounding emotions and hence correct maladaptive beliefs. Proof is demoing that trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy is a successful intervention for kids who are sexually abused, and besides those who have got experiences of multiple traumatic events of other signifiers. Most of the enquiries that have examined TF-CBT have been designed decently. This intervention theoretical account stands for a combination of trauma intercessions and established cognitive behavioural therapy guidelines. The Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy was brought in by groups of research workers who jointly in the recent yesteryear worked together to administrate multisite, treatment-outcome scrutinies for the sexually abused, traumatized kids. The intervention was initiated to give replies to posttraumatic emphasis upset, depressive and besides anxiousness symptoms. It was besides to cover with cardinal distorted positions on faulting oneself, security and trusting of other people. The therapy is besides utile in covering with sexual maltreatment and other traumatic cases into a wider context of kids s lives so that their individuality is non like that of a victim. Core elements of TF-CBT are ; Psycho instruction about child sexual maltreatment, here the victim is learns the effects of the injury as a whole physically, sexually, and emotionally and the common childhood neutralization to mistreat.for illustration in the instance of Melissa whereby her sense of ego may be altered. Feelingss, the invasive and besides the intrusive temperament of the sexual activity affect the kid s self-esteem negatively.The impact is both in the physical, whereby kids have a deformed sense of their organic structures, and psychologically, kid sees herself as variably different from her equals The undertaking here is let Melissa understand that it is normal to experience that manner after maltreatment but besides to do her feel whole and good about herself once more. The 2nd constituent of TF-CBT is the trauma narrative and gradual exposure technique whereby the kid explains the traumatic event in my instance Melissa. This improves bit by bit until Melissa is able to comfortably talk about the event in inside informations. This desensitizes the event and rubs off the stigma that is so normally linked with child maltreatment. The terminal end is for the Melissa to be in a place to discourse the straitening experience with no negative feelings. In that consequence she is desensitized to the event. This will be accomplished by allowing Melissa work her ain manner into the full revelation easy and methodically. At the terminal of therapy the purpose is to enable Melissa to speak comfortably about her maltreatment. The following constituent is cognitive reframing whereby Melissa should speak out the inaccurate feelings of the distressful event and she should be taught why those feelings are inaccurate for illustration ego incrimination whereby Melissa may be faulting herself for holding spoken out and hence experiencing guilty, and distorted sense of ego and low self-pride because of the sexual maltreatment, and frights and anxiousness. Melissa needs to be helped to understand intellectually and accept emotionally that she was non responsible. Her female parent s male child friend Tony sexually abused her ; she did non sexually abuse him. It was his occupation non hers to forestall the maltreatment. This is done by learning the connexion between ideas, feelings and the manner a kid behaves. Melissa will be taught how feelings and the behaviour connect and how she can command or wholly change those ideas and feelings to her advantage. The 4th constituent is the stress direction technique whereby Melissa will be taught different emphasis direction technique, such as the capacity to command her ideas. The kid will larn that she is capable of commanding her automatic physical reaction. This will assist cut down her torment. The other constituent is that of safety preparation whereby Melissa will be taught how to avoid victimization. She will larn how to cognize ruddy flags that indicate a bad state of affairs. The kid will besides be taught who to turn to if she finds herself in a slippery state of affairs. The kid will be taught to distinguish between decent and indecent touch and what to make in instance of an inappropriate touch. Parental engagement is the last constituent whereby Melissa s female parent Asher will take part in analogue or concurrence with her kid s therapy. A few parent-child articulation Sessionss are conducted in order to suit communicating in the household on issues like sexual maltreatment. Therapy of interfamilial maltreatment that ends in successful reunion of members of the household is based on the female parent s relationship with the kid. This may turn out to be a hard relationship particularly at the clip of revelation merely like when Asher. The wrongdoer in this instance Tony may hold got in uses that have separated the female parent and Melissa from one another. Melissa developed behaviours that were debatable because of the maltreatment, which damaged her relationship with the female parent. The mother-victim relationship will be enhanced by helping the Asher to develop empathy for the Melissa ; by easing their communicating ; Initial work will be done in personal therapy with the female parent, and so subsequently with both the female parent and kid. Enhancing the female parent and kid relationship is by and large an of import issue in assisting the female parent to protect her girl in future. Intervention to do the Asher as the female parent more protective can be implemented in different ways. When the female parent has a good relationship with her girl, she will be inclined to forestall the kid from any injury. Treatment to heighten the mother-child relationship and will make the chance that the kid will speak out to the female parent. Furthermore kid and the female parent relationship is to promote communicating freely specifically about the kid s safety. Mothers must besides cover with assorted issues connected to the present operation and past experiences in intervention. A common issue sing present operation is low self-esteem. Other issues to be addressed are experiences of force, dependence, and emotional jobs, in order to help the female parent in taking attention of her girl. In past injury country the common issue is holding been sexually abused themselves. Such an experience has effects in the manner a female parent s trades with her ain kid s sexual maltreatment ( De Bellis A ; Thomas, 2003 ) . The female parent may be so affected by her of her ain maltreatment and non be in a place to cover with her kid s. In such cases like the instance of Asher, her ain maltreatment has to be sorted out foremost. Her being a victim hinders her ability to spot hazardous state of affairss, and besides her picks of spouses ; hence she plays a function in her taking a spouse who goes sexual her kid. With increased rates of divorce, more kids are acquiring at greater hazard.Mothers, in their tests to happen a spouse, may unwittingly be puting their kids at hazard of sexual maltreatment from the work forces they day of the month merely like the instance of Melissa and Asher. When the female parent remarries or moves in with her spouse, harmonizing to a research done by Russell, the stepdaughters are more than eight times higher in hazard of being abused sexually by their stepfathers who stay with them than are girls who are taken attention of by their existent male parents. Harmonizing to Finkelhor ( 1986 ) , Some research workers have already started to theorize, that it could be a instance that more stepfathers are progressively going smart pedophiles In that they marry individual adult females with households as a method of acquiring near to the childrenaa‚Â ¬A? ( pg34 ) . Decision In decision the issue of child sexual maltreatment is really critical in our society today and needs to be addressed keenly.

Elements of change and continuity in the history of London and its Essay

Elements of change and continuity in the history of London and its cinematic representation - Essay Example It was the Normans who introduced the feudal system to Britain (Norton, 1829). And even before and after that, London has been a town of merchandise mainly (Norton, 1829). It was a city of banks as well (Michie and Williamson, 2004, p.12). These two features of the city have remained till date. And from a very early period, the citizens of London had many privileges given to them by the respective rulers, which were not enjoyed by the rest of the Britain's inhabitants (Norton, 1829, p.50-75). Even in the present scenario, Londoners are more well-off that all other British people. And the position of London as one of the most important places of commerce in the world, though dimmed, has not been entirely lost. The history of merchandise has imparted this city a unique system of governance: Formerly every man in London followed a trade: he therefore belonged to a company. And as the commonality, all the men of London together assembled, i.e. all the members of all the companies, elected the Mayor, so to this day the electors of the Lord Mayor are the members of the companies† (Besant, 2010, p.209). Though many people have shifted from trade into other vocations, the power given to the members of the companies remain (Besant, 2010, p.209). Secondly, the presence of West Minster abbey in the heart of London city is yet another mark of constancy. Even after London adopted democracy, the vestiges of monarchy lingered and even in cinematic depictions of London, the monarch and the palace inevitably finds a place. (Alfie, 1966, Together, 1956, London, 1994). The twentieth century London evolved as a city completely controlled by the rule of law, in the aftermath of the World War 1 (Michie and Williamson, 2004, p.2). Throughout the twentieth and twenty first century, the city has shown great political stability. In the 1950s, city of London, as a business hub, was under a transformation from the dominance of British currency to the rule of US dollar (Schenk, 2004, p.326). The crisis imparted by this diminishing economic dominance has returned to this city now and again and cost it man y developmental pitfalls. And this is why the recent economic recession that affected the United States first had a severe impact on this city as well. 1950s was a decade of the opening up of the economy of the city to such foreign influences. The

Business Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Intelligence - Essay Example In this case, the Marshfield Clinic and the Exclusive Resorts, LLC case studies will be explored based on various elements of business intelligence. From these case studies, it is evident that there must be a drive or an instigating factor to pursue BI solutions, it is important to choose the right BI software, there are barriers to the adoption of business intelligence solutions, and the system must be able to integrate all the applications in the company. However, some of the BI solutions are complex and costly. Therefore, it is important for the business to perform enough research before settling on a final BI solution. The Marshfield Clinic Case Study The Marshfield Clinic has more than 50 regional locations with over 800 physicians and 6,500 healthcare and administrative workers. The clinic efficiently manages more than 375,000 patients each year. For example, the management team made an investment in electronic patient records. To facilitate it, the clinic offered its staff wit h electronic tablets for purposes of history taking which would be automatically populated in a centralized patient data warehouse. All the clinical care and financial information of each patient is safely kept, constantly updated, and ready for reporting and analysis. The clinic constantly innovates to be in line with the industry change (Cummens and Konitzer, 2011). Recently, the clinic utilized SAP Business Objects solutions to observe the quality metrics as it implemented enhancement initiatives. The clinic has an efficient system for collecting patient care information but it requires the appropriate analytics tool to improve patient care metrics and also provide user-friendly reporting for the physicians’ desktops in order to give support to real-time decision making. Initially, the clinic used sophisticated ad hoc query tools before acquiring SAP BusinessObjects for analytics and reporting, however, this method required the users to undergo extensive training. The clin ic utilized train-the-trainer approach to train the end-user. The SAP BusinessObjects was the best fit for the clinic. This is because the management team required software that non-IT individuals (particularly the doctors) could use without any problems (Cummens and Konitzer, 2011). The rolling out and adoption process was quick and smooth. However, there were challenges such as converting the 60 Cognos catalogs of the clinic into novel semantic layers that functioned with SAP BusinessObjects software. The whole process tool close to nine months and the software has enabled the clinic to meet its goals from the perspective of reporting and analytics (Cummens and Konitzer, 2011). There are a number of lessons to be learned from this case study. First, there must be a drive or an instigating factor to pursue business intelligence solutions. Though the clinic had an efficient system, it still needed software that will keep then up to date with the ongoing healthcare industry changes. Electrosmart Ltd (2011), states that drivers of BI include rapid change, governance, stakeholder demands, expanding on ERP (enterprise resource planning) and data availability. In the case of Marshfield Clinic, data was readily available and there was need to be in line with the health care industry. Second, it is important to choose the right BI

Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies

Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies According to the statistics presented by the World Health Organization (WHO), with around 7.4 million deaths (around 13% of the total death) in 2004, cancer is the leading cause of death throughout the world (WHO, 2009). These levels are expected to rise further in future, with an estimated 12 million death in 2030 (WHO, 2009). There are more than 100 different types of cancer (Crosta, n.d.), among them the Lung cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer and the breast cancer are the most common types. Tobacco is the most important risk factor for cancer, with nearly 1.3 million deaths per year just due to lung cancer alone (WHO, 2009). Cancer At the primary level, human body consists of large number building blocks, called the cells. Under normal circumstances, new cells are formed by the body depending on the body requirement, in order to replace the dead cells. But sometimes, under abnormal conditions, there is an exponential (uncontrolled) increase in the formation and growth of new cells. The accumulation of these extra cells forms mass or lumps of tissues, called the tumor (National Cancer Institute, 2010). Most of the cancers, in general form tumors, but there are certain exceptions, like leukemia, that do not form tumors (in leukemia or blood cancer, the cancer cells hinder the normal blood functions due to abnormal cell disintegration in the blood stream (Crosta, n.d.)). The tumors can be of two types; benign tumor and malignant tumor. The benign tumors do not propagate to other sections of the body and have restrained growth (Crosta, n.d.), whereas the malignant tumor cells have the ability to invade into the sur rounding tissues. Also the malignant tumor cells can escape from their initial location and spread to other sections of the body through blood or lymph. Only the malignant tumors are cancerous in nature. Therefore, the cancer has three distinctive properties that distinguish malignant tumors from benign tumors: Uncontrolled growth Invasive nature Metastasis (ability to spread to other sections of the body) These disorders in cells are the result of the interaction between the genetic factors and external agents (which are called carcinogens) (WHO, 2009). The carcinogens can be categorized as (WHO, 2009): Biological carcinogens, like certain bacteria, viruses or parasites. Physical carcinogens, which includes the high energy radiations (ionizing radiations). Chemical carcinogens, these include substances like tobacco smoke, arsenic (water contaminant), aflatoxin (food contaminant), asbestos etc. Another factor essential in the development of cancer is the age. According to the studies conducted by the Cancer Research UK, the risk increase predominantly with increasing age, with nearly 74% of the cases of cancer diagnosed in people aged 60 and above (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Cancer Treatment Principle In case of normal cells there is specific pattern of growth, division and death (orderly destruction of cells is called apoptosis) (Crosta, n.d.). It is known that the cancer is the result of the uncontrolled growth of cells which do not die (Crosta, n.d.), that is, the apoptosis process fails in the cancer cells. The cancer cells thus do not die and rather continue to grow, resulting in the formation of tumors. As the problem in the cancer cells lies in the DNA, therefore a possible treatment of cancer is the destruction of the DNA in cancer cells, leading to a self initiated destruction of the cells. There are various methods used for the treatment of cancer depending upon the type of cancer. The most common types of treatment are (Fayed, 2009): Surgery Chemotherapy Radiation therapy or Radiotherapy Biologic or Targeted Therapy Radiotherapy Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, is one of the most common types of treatments used for cancer. It is the utilization of higher energy radiations like x-rays, gamma rays in order to kill cancer cells, treatment of thyroid disorder and even some blood disorders, in a particular section (effected part) of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). The high energy ionizing radiations can be produced using a number of radioactive substrates like Cobalt (60Co), Radium (228Ra), Iodine (131I), Radon (221Rn), Cesium (137Cs), Phosphorus (32P), Gold (198Au), Iridium (192Ir), and Yttrium (90Y) (Howington, 2006). The cancer cells have the ability to multiply faster than other body cells. The high energy ionizing radiations are more destructive towards the faster growing cells, and thus they damage the cancer cell more than the other body cells (Mason, 2008). These high energy radiations like gamma rays and x-rays; especially damage the DNA inside these cancer cells (or tumor cells) thereby annihilating the ability of the cells to reproduce or grow. Apart from treatment of cancer, radiation therapy is also used to shrink a tumor before being surgically removed (Mason, 2008). Depending upon the method of irradiation, the process of radiation therapy is categorized into two forms (Mason, 2008): External Radiotherapy In this method (more common), the infected part of the body (tumor) is irradiated by high energy x-rays from outside the body. Internal Radiotherapy For this method, a radioactive substance are injected (or taken orally) into the body (close to the tumor) in the form of fluids. These substances, taken up by the cancer cells, radiate the tumor through internal beam radiation (or interstitial radiation) (Mason, 2008). Radiotherapy Planning A careful planning is essentially required for radiation therapy, as over exposure can be critically dangerous to healthy tissues in the body. The ionizing radiations have side effects, therefore once the full dose of radiations is decided; the patient is given these radiations in the form of small doses in a series of therapy sessions (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Each small dose of radiation is called a fraction. The gap between sessions provides the recovery time for the body, which may depend on the type of cancer and patients health condition. The area of the body that is radiated during the treatment is called the radiotherapy field and the section inside the body that experiences the maximum exposure dose is called the target volume (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The doctors decide the marginal area around the tumor that should be radiated to encapsulate any movement of the cancer cells. In order to accurately determine the position of tumor (or target volume), body scans are done. Computed Tomography (CT) scans are done as a planning procedure, this provides vital information regarding the location of the tumor as well as the kind of treatment required by the patient (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The radiotherapy treatment planning process can be divided into 6 major steps . Computer Tomography (CT) Scan The invention of Computer Tomography (CT) scanned is credited to Sir Godfrey Hounsfield in early 1970s, for which he along with Allen Cormack, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979 (Smith, n.d.). A CT scanner, also known as the Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanner uses X-rays to produce cross sectional images (or slices) of the body like a slice in a loaf of bread (FDA, 2010). The word tomography suggests the process of generating a two-dimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram) (Nordqvist, 2009). These cross-sectional slides render an accurate picture of the size and location of the tumor along with the position of major organs in the body (Cancer Research UK, 2009). This would be essentially useful during the radiotherapy process, where these can be used to lower the dose of radiations on the organs. It is known that in case of radiation therapy treatment, the doses are given in fractions over a certain period of time (to prevent major side effects), which may vary from few weeks to months. Thus, before each fraction of radiation dose, computed tomography (CT) scan of the patients is done to determine the exact location of the tumor or cancer cells. So in case the full dose has been divided into 30 fractions, then the patient has to undergo 30 CT scans, each before a fractional therapy. The machine used for the radiation therapy planning is known as the simulator (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The simulator identifies the position of the tumor and marks the position of radiation on the body with the help of light rays. The radiographer uses ink markers on the body before the actual radiotherapy is begun. These linear ink marks are used by the radiographer for positioning the machine for radiotherapy (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Simulators take the pictures (CT scans) in the form of X-rays, which locates the accurate tumor position for the radiographer to carry out the treatment. During a CT scan, it is essential that the person remains completely still so that the measurements are accurate. In order to insure the correct position supports like neck rest, chest board or arm pole are used (Cancer Research UK, 2009). In case of children it is ensured by giving proper sedatives. Sometimes, under critical condition, extra measures are taken in order to prevent essential organs from being radiated during the therapy. These measures include injecting fluids or dyes which mark the position of vital human organs in the CT scan (Cancer Research UK, 2009). These markers may be given orally, through injections or rectally depending upon the requirement. Using this vital information from the CT scans, a treatment plan for radiation therapy is prepared. This plan indicates the position and direction of the radiations during the therapy, so as to minimize the exposure of healthy cells and organs. The scans generated by a CT scanner are in the form of 2 dimensional (2-D) slides, but by the used of digital geometry processing they can be used to generate a 3 dimensional (3-D) images of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). This can be achieved by integrating all the slides (along the same axis) together using a computer system. The CT scan can be understood as a technically advanced format of X-rays machines. The x-rays images are produced by the projection of a broad beam of x-rays on a film after passing through the body (Medindia, 2010). It provides a 2-dimentional projection of the body, where much of the information is lost. In case of CT scan, a thin beam of x-rays is absorbed by the detector after passing though the patients body (Medindia, 2010). Like the x-ray process, the CT scanning is a painless process for the patients but has been known to be accompanied with some side effects. These side effects may vary from the patient to patient depending upon the amount of radiation dose and health of the patient. The detailed discussion on the health effects of CT scanning has been discussed in the later sections of the project. Theory In order to understand the working of a computed tomography (CT) scanner it is essential to understand the properties of ionizing radiations (X-rays) used in the scanning process. The electromagnetic radiations are the arrangement of electric-field and magnetic-field vectors perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave (Resnick et al., 2009). These Electromagnetic radiations have penetrating powers, which are directly dependent on the energy (or frequency) of these radiations. So that radiations with higher frequency have higher penetration powers. Therefore, on the basic the energy, the electromagnetic radiations are categorized as Non-ionizing radiations and Ionizing radiations. Non-Ionizing radiations refer to the electromagnetic radiations which have energy lower than that required for an atomic ionization (MIT, 2001). The non-ionizing radiations include radio waves, micro waves, visible light etc. These radiations have lower penetration powers. Alternatively the Ionizing radiations are the high frequency radiations which have enough energy to knockout an electron from an atom and thus causing ionization (MIT, 2001). The Gamma rays and X-rays are the common type of ionizing radiations. Even the alpha particles and beta particles emitted in a nuclear reaction are ionizing radiations (MIT, 2001). Due to the higher energy they have higher penetration power than the non-ionizing radiations. Principle of CT Scanning The most important section of a Computed Tomography (CT) scanning is the interaction of the ionizing X-ray radiations with the living tissues in the body. When the ionizing radiations (X-rays) interact with the living tissues in the body, they break up atoms and molecules from the living tissues and disrupt chemical reactions within the body (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The intensity of absorption of the x-ray radiations by the body varies depending upon the tissue coming in interaction. Different body tissues have different absorption power, where some are permeable to x-rays others are impermeable (Medindia, 2010). It is due to this difference in the absorption ability of different sections of the body, which results in the generation of a graded pattern in the scans. High density tissues like the bones appear white in the scan while the soft tissues (like brain and kidneys) appear dark. The cavities (like the lungs) are seen as black sections in the scan (Medindia, 2010). Therefore, this gradation in the pattern can be used as method to distinguish different body organs depending upon their absorption capacity. This forms the basic principle behind the working of an X-ray scanning. Radon (1917) was the first to develop the principles of computed tomography (CT) mathematically (Bushberg et al., 2002). According to Radon, with the help of infinite number of projections through an object, it could be possible to produce an image of an unknown object. In case of film imaging (as in conventional X-rays), a two-dimensional (2-D) projection of the body is generated on the film. Due to this, details in the dimension of the body along the direction parallel to the x-ray beam are lost. In order to overcome this drawback (only up to a certain level) projections can be taken along two directions; posteroanterior (PA) projection and lateral projection (Bushberg et al., 2002) (as shown in Figure 4). Increasing the number of scans improves the amount of information but in critical and complex cases where much more details are required. For these critical cases, CT scan is done. The CT scan provides the tomographical image, which is the picture of patients body in the sections or slabs. The thickness of these uniform slabs may vary from 1 millimeter to 10 millimeter (Bushberg et al., 2002), according to the program, depending upon the requirement. Each CT image consists of an array of large number of pixels forming a two dimensional (2-D) image, which corresponds to the same number of three dimensional thin rectangular slabs called the voxel. The voxels are the volume element whereas the pixels are the picture element (Bushberg et al., 2002). Every ray from the X-ray source passes (transmits) through the patient before the transmission measurement is done by the detector. Intensity of the un-attenuated x-ray radiation emitted by the source is Io whereas the intensity of the attenuated radiation after transmitting through the patient is given as It. The intensities Io and It are related by the equation (Bushberg et al., 2002):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It=Ioe-ÃŽ ¼t   Ã‚  Where;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ µ is the total linear attenuation coefficient of the tissue (Smith, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  t is the distance travelled by the radiation in the tissue i.e. the tissue thickness. The coefficient  µ is dependent on the atomic number and electron density of the tissues (Smith, n.d.). Higher the atomic number and electron density of the tissues, higher would be the attenuation coefficient (Smith, n.d.). This form the basic principle of CT scanning, that different tissues have different level of attenuation properties depending upon their atomic number and electron density. For every measurement, the overall attenuation coefficient is calculated using the above equation. During a complete 360o ­ scan, various transmission measurements for the intensity of X-ray photon are done. Using these intensity measurements specific attenuation values are allotted to every voxel (volume element). These attenuation numbers are directly proportional to the linear attenuation coefficient. The average of these attenuation values is called the CT number (Smith, n.d.). These values can be arranged on a linear scale, the units of which are called the Hounsfield units (HU). The scale for modern CT scanners varies from approximately -1,000 to 3,000 HU. The attenuation scale is based on binary system and therefore the exact values range from -1,024 to +3,071, with a total of 4,096 (or 212) attenuation numbers. Here, the lower represent the black section while the higher values represent the white section of the CT image. On this scale the attenuation value of water is zero HU and that of air is -1,000 HU (Smith, n.d.). Both of these values act as the reference points. Construction of a CT scanner CT scanner is a complex machine, but the basic structure is simple. A common CT scanner has been shown in Figure 2. Two most important parts of a CT scanner are the X-ray source and detector. The source and detector are placed in a circular structure, which has a shape similar to a doughnut. This doughnut shaped circular opening is called the gantry (RadiologyInfo, 2009), with an inner (opening) diameter varying from 60 cms to 70 cms. The X-ray source and detector are placed exactly (diagonally) opposite each other, so that the radiations emitted by the source pass through the body and the transmitted radiations are measured by the detector. The x-ray source and detector system in the gantry is motorized to rotate around the patient for measurements in different projection angles. The rational speed of the system is adjusted according to the detectors ability to measure and convert the x-ray beam into electronic signal. Cobalt (60Co) is generally used as the source of x-rays in the CT scanners. The detector used in CT scanner consists of an array of detectors in a slightly curved shape (like a banana). This curved shape is especially useful in fan-shaped beam projects. Two types of detectors are generally utilized in the CT scans; solid state or scintillation detector and Xenon gas detector (Reddinger, 1997). But the solid state detectors with scintillators like Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO4), yttrium, gadolinium ceramics etc are commonly used (Bushberg et al., 2002). The principle of the scintillation detector is that, when it is struck by a x-ray photon, it produces light. This light signal is then transformed to electrical signal with the help of photodiode. The Depending upon their structure, the detectors are categorized into two categories; single detector array and multiple detector array. Another essential part of a CT scanner is the motorized examination table. The table is controlled to move in and out of the gantry during the scanning process. As the position of the x-ray source and detector is fixed therefore the section being scanned is controlled by the movement of the examination table. For a better scan it is necessary that the patient remains completely still. To insure this table is equipped with neck rest, chest board and arm pole (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The detector measures the intensity of the radiation and converts them into electrical signals. These raw signals are analyzed and manipulated by the computer to convert them into images which can be understood by the radiologists and the technicians. Multiple computers are required in a CT scanner. The main computer that controls the operation of the entire system is called the host computer (Imaginis, n.d.). The computers and controls are located in a room adjoining the scanning room. This prevents the technicians and the radiographer from exposure to x-rays. Scanning Procedure in a CT scanner Initially the patient is positioned on the examination (or scanning) table in a flat upright posture (face towards the roof). In order to insure the correct and stationary position, straps and pillows may be used along the body. Once the patient is correctly positioned on the scanning table, the motorized table moves the patient into the circular opening of the CT scanner (FDA, 2010), which the x-ray radiations are projected on the patient from the scanning. For a particular position of the x-ray source and detector, the rays from the source pass through a region called the projection or view. There are two different types of projection geometries that are used in CT scanning; parallel beam geometry and fan beam geometry. In the parallel beam geometry, the rays projected on the patient are parallel to each other whereas in fan beam geometry, the rays diverge from the source in the shape of a fan (Bushberg et al., 2002) as shown in Figure 7. The fan beam projections are the most commonly in used x-ray projections in the CT scanners. The X-ray tube is attached with a collimator which controls the thickness of the fan beam. This thickness (of the fan beam projection) determines the width of the tissue slide in the scanning process. It is through the collimator that the slice thickness is varied between 1mm to 10mm (Smith, n.d.). The x-ray source and detector rotate around the patient (for imaging) in a circular motion such that they always remain exactly (diametrically) opposite to each other (as shown in Figure 7). During the rotation the source keeps emitting x-rays which are attenuated after passing through the patient. For a single projection (or slice), the x-ray source and detector make a complete 360o rotation around the patient. During the rotation the detector takes a large number of snapshots of the absorbed X-ray beam at different projection angles. A single image may involve approximately 800 rays and there can be up to 1,000 different projection angles (Bushberg et al., 2002). Therefore for a single projection (one slice), the detector does nearly 800,000 transmission measurements (Bushberg et al., 2002). The scanning of a single projection generally takes around 1 sec (for axial CT scanners) (FDA, 2010). Once all the transmission measurements (complete 360o) for a projection (or slice) are completed, the motorized table moves along the axis of the gantry so that the next slice of tissues forms the projection view. The process is continued till the complete required section of the body has been scanned. In the traditional CT scanners, the table moved on to the next projection (slice) only when the scanning of the previous was completed. Such conventional type of scanning is called the axial scanning. But in modern CT scanners, called the helical or spiral CT scanners, the rotation of the x-ray source and detector is accompanied with the uniform movement of the examination table, thus producing a helical projection. The helical CT scanning has been shown in Figure 9. These modern helical CT scanners are much faster than the traditional scanners due to continuous scanning process. They have been reported to take nearly half the time for scanning as compared to the traditional CT scanner s. In order to analyze and study the cardiac structure which is under constant motion, even helical CT is ineffective. For such applications a special CT scanner with an exposure time of 50ms and a maximum exposure rate of 17 images per second are used (Smith, n.d.). These scanners, called the cine CT, freeze the cardiac motion due to extremely low exposure time resulting in a sharp image (Smith, n.d.). These scanners use electron beam to generate x-rays, thus are also known as Electron Beam Computed Tomography (EBCT). In the CT scanning process large volume of data and operations are required to be processed, which is achieved with the help of multiple computers. The detector converts the intensity measurements of the attenuated x-rays in to electrical signals. The main computer, called the hub computer processes these signals and converts them into an image. These images can then be analyzed for radiotherapy planning. Result Computed Tomography (CT) has become an invaluable medical tool. It provides detailed 3-D images of various sections of the body like pelvis, soft tissues, lungs brain, blood vessels and bones (Nordqvist, 2009). Generally, CT scanning is the preferred method of diagnosing different types of cancers like liver, lungs and pancreatic cancers (Nordqvist, 2009). The tomographic images produced by the CT scan provide specific location and size of the tumor along with the details of affected tissues in the proximity of the tumor. This is especially advantageous in planning, guiding, and monitoring therapies like radiotherapy (FDA, 2010). CT scanning has various benefits over other traditional diagnostic techniques; some of the benefits are (RadiologyInfo, 2009): It is non-invasive, painless and extremely accurate. A major advantage is the ability to identify and distinguish bones, soft tissues and blood vessels in the same image. It also provides real time images which cannot be done in conventional X-rays. This technique is fast and simple; and is extensively used to locate internal injuries after accidents. It is less sensitive towards patient movement as compared to MRI. CT scanning can be used on patients with medical implants unlike the MRI. For an effective radiation therapy treatment, it is necessary that only the tumor is irradiated while minimum damage occurs to the surrounding health (normal) body tissues (Badcock, 1982). This is achieved with the help of CT imaging technique. In a study by Badcock (1982), 186 patients with various malignancies were studied and it was found that in nearly 39% of the treatment cases CT scanning was valuable in the assessment of the radiationdose calculation (Badcock, 1982). According to his study, CT scanner resulted in an alternation in target dose by more than 5%, (as compared to the traditional methods) in 27% of the patients (Badcock, 1982). The result has been shown in the table below. The mean alternation was 6.5% of the target dose and usually resulted in reduction of dose per fraction by factors upto 35% (Badcock, 1982). Even with these advantages, the adverse affect of the ionizing x-ray radiations cannot be neglected. Various experiments and researches have consolidated the fact that ionizing radiations like x-rays, gamma rays etc have adverse effect on living tissues. Zamanian Hardiman (2005) have explained that when high energy ionizing radiations interact with living tissues they strip-off atoms and molecules from them. This disrupts the chemical reaction within the body and failure in organ functioning (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The adverse effects of ionizing radiations were seen shortly after its discovery in 1890s, with a scientist involved in the study of radioactivity were reported with skin cancer in 1902. But is was not until 1944, that the role of radiations in causing leukemia in human was first documented, mainly in radiologists and physicists (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). In recent years the use of x-rays has extensviely increased in medical field for diagonostic and treatment application. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, X-ray deveices are the largest source of man-made radiation exposure (US_EPA, 2007). According to NCRP Report No. 160 (2006), the average annual effective dose per individual in the US population, from all sources has increase from 1.7mSv in 1980s to 6.2mSv in 2006. This increase is mainly attributed to the striking growth of high dose medical imaging procedures that utilize x-rays and radionuclides (NCRP, 2008). Such man-made devices include X-ray machines, CT scans etc. CT scans, especially result in high dose x-ray exposure, with nealy 100 times the exposure dose as compared to standard x-ray equipments (Coach, 2008). Some of the major risks associated with CT scanning are: It is well documented that ionizing radiaitons like x-rays have the ability to cause cancer on exposure. Therefore, the CT dose in radiotherapy increase the probabilty of cancer in the future. Even though only 4% of the total x-ray examinations are CT scans, they account for more than 20% of the radiation dose to the population by medical x-rays (King Saud University, 2004). In general, the effective dose in a CT scan procedure ranges from 2 mSv to 10mSv, which is nearly equivalent to the amount of radiation that a person receive from the background exposures in three to five years (RadiologyInfo, 2009). A CT scan during preganacy make cause serious illness or even birth defects in the unborn baby (FDA, 2010). Children are more sensitive and vulnerable to x-ray exposures than the adults, therefore their CT scanning should be done only under extremely essential and necessary conditions. Women have higher risk of developing cancer in the lifetime, as compared to men under same levels of exposure (FDA, 2009). In some rare situation of high-dose prolonged radiation exposure, the x-rays can cause adverse effects like skin reddening (erythema), skin tissue injury, hair loss, cataracts etc (FDA, 2010). In a study, Sawyer et al (2009) estimated the effective dose resulting from a cone beam CT scanning for planning of radiation therapy using thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLDs) for organ dose and using International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 60 tissue weighing factor (Sawyer et al., 2009). The results obtained for effective dose from TLD measurements and ICRP 60 weighting factor, for breast, pelvis and head simulation have been shown in the table below. The scanning process results in the exposure of the normal tissues outside the treatment volume (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). It is thus important to analyze the effect that the irradiation caused by the CT scanning process has on the patients body. In a study, Waddington McKenzie (2004) analyzed the propability of developing cancer from the irradiations caused by the extended field portal imaging techniques, the results of which are given in the table below (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). In order to illustrate a real life situation, the calulations in the study were done for an average man with a height of 170 cms and weight of 70 kgs (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). Therefore, these values may change depending upon the height, weight and tumor size of the patient. Discussion Various studies have been done to statistically evaluate the effect of the ionizing radiations on the human health. These risks have severely amplified due to the rapid increase in the number of CT scans for diagnostic applications. CT scans form nearly 5% of all procedures used in diagnostic radiology in the developed countries (Wrixon et al., 2004). In U.S., nearly 70 million CT scans were done in 2007 as compared to just 3 million done in 1980 (Steenhuysen, 2009), this includes more than 4 million children in 2006 (Brenner Hall, 2007). Thus, according to the NCRP Report no. 160, the average radiation dose per person has increased from 3.6 mSv in early 1980s to 6.2 mSv in 2006 (NCRP, 2008). Steenhuysen (2009) has reported that the radiations from CT scans done in 2007 will cause 29,000 cancers and kill nearly 15,000 people in America (Steenhuysen, 2009). These stats explain the level of exposure caused by the CT scans. According to estimates by Amy Berrington de Gonzalez of the National Cancer Institute, Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies Development of CT Scans for Cancer Studies According to the statistics presented by the World Health Organization (WHO), with around 7.4 million deaths (around 13% of the total death) in 2004, cancer is the leading cause of death throughout the world (WHO, 2009). These levels are expected to rise further in future, with an estimated 12 million death in 2030 (WHO, 2009). There are more than 100 different types of cancer (Crosta, n.d.), among them the Lung cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer and the breast cancer are the most common types. Tobacco is the most important risk factor for cancer, with nearly 1.3 million deaths per year just due to lung cancer alone (WHO, 2009). Cancer At the primary level, human body consists of large number building blocks, called the cells. Under normal circumstances, new cells are formed by the body depending on the body requirement, in order to replace the dead cells. But sometimes, under abnormal conditions, there is an exponential (uncontrolled) increase in the formation and growth of new cells. The accumulation of these extra cells forms mass or lumps of tissues, called the tumor (National Cancer Institute, 2010). Most of the cancers, in general form tumors, but there are certain exceptions, like leukemia, that do not form tumors (in leukemia or blood cancer, the cancer cells hinder the normal blood functions due to abnormal cell disintegration in the blood stream (Crosta, n.d.)). The tumors can be of two types; benign tumor and malignant tumor. The benign tumors do not propagate to other sections of the body and have restrained growth (Crosta, n.d.), whereas the malignant tumor cells have the ability to invade into the sur rounding tissues. Also the malignant tumor cells can escape from their initial location and spread to other sections of the body through blood or lymph. Only the malignant tumors are cancerous in nature. Therefore, the cancer has three distinctive properties that distinguish malignant tumors from benign tumors: Uncontrolled growth Invasive nature Metastasis (ability to spread to other sections of the body) These disorders in cells are the result of the interaction between the genetic factors and external agents (which are called carcinogens) (WHO, 2009). The carcinogens can be categorized as (WHO, 2009): Biological carcinogens, like certain bacteria, viruses or parasites. Physical carcinogens, which includes the high energy radiations (ionizing radiations). Chemical carcinogens, these include substances like tobacco smoke, arsenic (water contaminant), aflatoxin (food contaminant), asbestos etc. Another factor essential in the development of cancer is the age. According to the studies conducted by the Cancer Research UK, the risk increase predominantly with increasing age, with nearly 74% of the cases of cancer diagnosed in people aged 60 and above (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Cancer Treatment Principle In case of normal cells there is specific pattern of growth, division and death (orderly destruction of cells is called apoptosis) (Crosta, n.d.). It is known that the cancer is the result of the uncontrolled growth of cells which do not die (Crosta, n.d.), that is, the apoptosis process fails in the cancer cells. The cancer cells thus do not die and rather continue to grow, resulting in the formation of tumors. As the problem in the cancer cells lies in the DNA, therefore a possible treatment of cancer is the destruction of the DNA in cancer cells, leading to a self initiated destruction of the cells. There are various methods used for the treatment of cancer depending upon the type of cancer. The most common types of treatment are (Fayed, 2009): Surgery Chemotherapy Radiation therapy or Radiotherapy Biologic or Targeted Therapy Radiotherapy Radiotherapy, also referred to as radiation therapy, is one of the most common types of treatments used for cancer. It is the utilization of higher energy radiations like x-rays, gamma rays in order to kill cancer cells, treatment of thyroid disorder and even some blood disorders, in a particular section (effected part) of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). The high energy ionizing radiations can be produced using a number of radioactive substrates like Cobalt (60Co), Radium (228Ra), Iodine (131I), Radon (221Rn), Cesium (137Cs), Phosphorus (32P), Gold (198Au), Iridium (192Ir), and Yttrium (90Y) (Howington, 2006). The cancer cells have the ability to multiply faster than other body cells. The high energy ionizing radiations are more destructive towards the faster growing cells, and thus they damage the cancer cell more than the other body cells (Mason, 2008). These high energy radiations like gamma rays and x-rays; especially damage the DNA inside these cancer cells (or tumor cells) thereby annihilating the ability of the cells to reproduce or grow. Apart from treatment of cancer, radiation therapy is also used to shrink a tumor before being surgically removed (Mason, 2008). Depending upon the method of irradiation, the process of radiation therapy is categorized into two forms (Mason, 2008): External Radiotherapy In this method (more common), the infected part of the body (tumor) is irradiated by high energy x-rays from outside the body. Internal Radiotherapy For this method, a radioactive substance are injected (or taken orally) into the body (close to the tumor) in the form of fluids. These substances, taken up by the cancer cells, radiate the tumor through internal beam radiation (or interstitial radiation) (Mason, 2008). Radiotherapy Planning A careful planning is essentially required for radiation therapy, as over exposure can be critically dangerous to healthy tissues in the body. The ionizing radiations have side effects, therefore once the full dose of radiations is decided; the patient is given these radiations in the form of small doses in a series of therapy sessions (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Each small dose of radiation is called a fraction. The gap between sessions provides the recovery time for the body, which may depend on the type of cancer and patients health condition. The area of the body that is radiated during the treatment is called the radiotherapy field and the section inside the body that experiences the maximum exposure dose is called the target volume (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The doctors decide the marginal area around the tumor that should be radiated to encapsulate any movement of the cancer cells. In order to accurately determine the position of tumor (or target volume), body scans are done. Computed Tomography (CT) scans are done as a planning procedure, this provides vital information regarding the location of the tumor as well as the kind of treatment required by the patient (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The radiotherapy treatment planning process can be divided into 6 major steps . Computer Tomography (CT) Scan The invention of Computer Tomography (CT) scanned is credited to Sir Godfrey Hounsfield in early 1970s, for which he along with Allen Cormack, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1979 (Smith, n.d.). A CT scanner, also known as the Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanner uses X-rays to produce cross sectional images (or slices) of the body like a slice in a loaf of bread (FDA, 2010). The word tomography suggests the process of generating a two-dimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram) (Nordqvist, 2009). These cross-sectional slides render an accurate picture of the size and location of the tumor along with the position of major organs in the body (Cancer Research UK, 2009). This would be essentially useful during the radiotherapy process, where these can be used to lower the dose of radiations on the organs. It is known that in case of radiation therapy treatment, the doses are given in fractions over a certain period of time (to prevent major side effects), which may vary from few weeks to months. Thus, before each fraction of radiation dose, computed tomography (CT) scan of the patients is done to determine the exact location of the tumor or cancer cells. So in case the full dose has been divided into 30 fractions, then the patient has to undergo 30 CT scans, each before a fractional therapy. The machine used for the radiation therapy planning is known as the simulator (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The simulator identifies the position of the tumor and marks the position of radiation on the body with the help of light rays. The radiographer uses ink markers on the body before the actual radiotherapy is begun. These linear ink marks are used by the radiographer for positioning the machine for radiotherapy (Cancer Research UK, 2009). Simulators take the pictures (CT scans) in the form of X-rays, which locates the accurate tumor position for the radiographer to carry out the treatment. During a CT scan, it is essential that the person remains completely still so that the measurements are accurate. In order to insure the correct position supports like neck rest, chest board or arm pole are used (Cancer Research UK, 2009). In case of children it is ensured by giving proper sedatives. Sometimes, under critical condition, extra measures are taken in order to prevent essential organs from being radiated during the therapy. These measures include injecting fluids or dyes which mark the position of vital human organs in the CT scan (Cancer Research UK, 2009). These markers may be given orally, through injections or rectally depending upon the requirement. Using this vital information from the CT scans, a treatment plan for radiation therapy is prepared. This plan indicates the position and direction of the radiations during the therapy, so as to minimize the exposure of healthy cells and organs. The scans generated by a CT scanner are in the form of 2 dimensional (2-D) slides, but by the used of digital geometry processing they can be used to generate a 3 dimensional (3-D) images of the body (Nordqvist, 2009). This can be achieved by integrating all the slides (along the same axis) together using a computer system. The CT scan can be understood as a technically advanced format of X-rays machines. The x-rays images are produced by the projection of a broad beam of x-rays on a film after passing through the body (Medindia, 2010). It provides a 2-dimentional projection of the body, where much of the information is lost. In case of CT scan, a thin beam of x-rays is absorbed by the detector after passing though the patients body (Medindia, 2010). Like the x-ray process, the CT scanning is a painless process for the patients but has been known to be accompanied with some side effects. These side effects may vary from the patient to patient depending upon the amount of radiation dose and health of the patient. The detailed discussion on the health effects of CT scanning has been discussed in the later sections of the project. Theory In order to understand the working of a computed tomography (CT) scanner it is essential to understand the properties of ionizing radiations (X-rays) used in the scanning process. The electromagnetic radiations are the arrangement of electric-field and magnetic-field vectors perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave (Resnick et al., 2009). These Electromagnetic radiations have penetrating powers, which are directly dependent on the energy (or frequency) of these radiations. So that radiations with higher frequency have higher penetration powers. Therefore, on the basic the energy, the electromagnetic radiations are categorized as Non-ionizing radiations and Ionizing radiations. Non-Ionizing radiations refer to the electromagnetic radiations which have energy lower than that required for an atomic ionization (MIT, 2001). The non-ionizing radiations include radio waves, micro waves, visible light etc. These radiations have lower penetration powers. Alternatively the Ionizing radiations are the high frequency radiations which have enough energy to knockout an electron from an atom and thus causing ionization (MIT, 2001). The Gamma rays and X-rays are the common type of ionizing radiations. Even the alpha particles and beta particles emitted in a nuclear reaction are ionizing radiations (MIT, 2001). Due to the higher energy they have higher penetration power than the non-ionizing radiations. Principle of CT Scanning The most important section of a Computed Tomography (CT) scanning is the interaction of the ionizing X-ray radiations with the living tissues in the body. When the ionizing radiations (X-rays) interact with the living tissues in the body, they break up atoms and molecules from the living tissues and disrupt chemical reactions within the body (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The intensity of absorption of the x-ray radiations by the body varies depending upon the tissue coming in interaction. Different body tissues have different absorption power, where some are permeable to x-rays others are impermeable (Medindia, 2010). It is due to this difference in the absorption ability of different sections of the body, which results in the generation of a graded pattern in the scans. High density tissues like the bones appear white in the scan while the soft tissues (like brain and kidneys) appear dark. The cavities (like the lungs) are seen as black sections in the scan (Medindia, 2010). Therefore, this gradation in the pattern can be used as method to distinguish different body organs depending upon their absorption capacity. This forms the basic principle behind the working of an X-ray scanning. Radon (1917) was the first to develop the principles of computed tomography (CT) mathematically (Bushberg et al., 2002). According to Radon, with the help of infinite number of projections through an object, it could be possible to produce an image of an unknown object. In case of film imaging (as in conventional X-rays), a two-dimensional (2-D) projection of the body is generated on the film. Due to this, details in the dimension of the body along the direction parallel to the x-ray beam are lost. In order to overcome this drawback (only up to a certain level) projections can be taken along two directions; posteroanterior (PA) projection and lateral projection (Bushberg et al., 2002) (as shown in Figure 4). Increasing the number of scans improves the amount of information but in critical and complex cases where much more details are required. For these critical cases, CT scan is done. The CT scan provides the tomographical image, which is the picture of patients body in the sections or slabs. The thickness of these uniform slabs may vary from 1 millimeter to 10 millimeter (Bushberg et al., 2002), according to the program, depending upon the requirement. Each CT image consists of an array of large number of pixels forming a two dimensional (2-D) image, which corresponds to the same number of three dimensional thin rectangular slabs called the voxel. The voxels are the volume element whereas the pixels are the picture element (Bushberg et al., 2002). Every ray from the X-ray source passes (transmits) through the patient before the transmission measurement is done by the detector. Intensity of the un-attenuated x-ray radiation emitted by the source is Io whereas the intensity of the attenuated radiation after transmitting through the patient is given as It. The intensities Io and It are related by the equation (Bushberg et al., 2002):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It=Ioe-ÃŽ ¼t   Ã‚  Where;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ µ is the total linear attenuation coefficient of the tissue (Smith, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  t is the distance travelled by the radiation in the tissue i.e. the tissue thickness. The coefficient  µ is dependent on the atomic number and electron density of the tissues (Smith, n.d.). Higher the atomic number and electron density of the tissues, higher would be the attenuation coefficient (Smith, n.d.). This form the basic principle of CT scanning, that different tissues have different level of attenuation properties depending upon their atomic number and electron density. For every measurement, the overall attenuation coefficient is calculated using the above equation. During a complete 360o ­ scan, various transmission measurements for the intensity of X-ray photon are done. Using these intensity measurements specific attenuation values are allotted to every voxel (volume element). These attenuation numbers are directly proportional to the linear attenuation coefficient. The average of these attenuation values is called the CT number (Smith, n.d.). These values can be arranged on a linear scale, the units of which are called the Hounsfield units (HU). The scale for modern CT scanners varies from approximately -1,000 to 3,000 HU. The attenuation scale is based on binary system and therefore the exact values range from -1,024 to +3,071, with a total of 4,096 (or 212) attenuation numbers. Here, the lower represent the black section while the higher values represent the white section of the CT image. On this scale the attenuation value of water is zero HU and that of air is -1,000 HU (Smith, n.d.). Both of these values act as the reference points. Construction of a CT scanner CT scanner is a complex machine, but the basic structure is simple. A common CT scanner has been shown in Figure 2. Two most important parts of a CT scanner are the X-ray source and detector. The source and detector are placed in a circular structure, which has a shape similar to a doughnut. This doughnut shaped circular opening is called the gantry (RadiologyInfo, 2009), with an inner (opening) diameter varying from 60 cms to 70 cms. The X-ray source and detector are placed exactly (diagonally) opposite each other, so that the radiations emitted by the source pass through the body and the transmitted radiations are measured by the detector. The x-ray source and detector system in the gantry is motorized to rotate around the patient for measurements in different projection angles. The rational speed of the system is adjusted according to the detectors ability to measure and convert the x-ray beam into electronic signal. Cobalt (60Co) is generally used as the source of x-rays in the CT scanners. The detector used in CT scanner consists of an array of detectors in a slightly curved shape (like a banana). This curved shape is especially useful in fan-shaped beam projects. Two types of detectors are generally utilized in the CT scans; solid state or scintillation detector and Xenon gas detector (Reddinger, 1997). But the solid state detectors with scintillators like Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO4), yttrium, gadolinium ceramics etc are commonly used (Bushberg et al., 2002). The principle of the scintillation detector is that, when it is struck by a x-ray photon, it produces light. This light signal is then transformed to electrical signal with the help of photodiode. The Depending upon their structure, the detectors are categorized into two categories; single detector array and multiple detector array. Another essential part of a CT scanner is the motorized examination table. The table is controlled to move in and out of the gantry during the scanning process. As the position of the x-ray source and detector is fixed therefore the section being scanned is controlled by the movement of the examination table. For a better scan it is necessary that the patient remains completely still. To insure this table is equipped with neck rest, chest board and arm pole (Cancer Research UK, 2009). The detector measures the intensity of the radiation and converts them into electrical signals. These raw signals are analyzed and manipulated by the computer to convert them into images which can be understood by the radiologists and the technicians. Multiple computers are required in a CT scanner. The main computer that controls the operation of the entire system is called the host computer (Imaginis, n.d.). The computers and controls are located in a room adjoining the scanning room. This prevents the technicians and the radiographer from exposure to x-rays. Scanning Procedure in a CT scanner Initially the patient is positioned on the examination (or scanning) table in a flat upright posture (face towards the roof). In order to insure the correct and stationary position, straps and pillows may be used along the body. Once the patient is correctly positioned on the scanning table, the motorized table moves the patient into the circular opening of the CT scanner (FDA, 2010), which the x-ray radiations are projected on the patient from the scanning. For a particular position of the x-ray source and detector, the rays from the source pass through a region called the projection or view. There are two different types of projection geometries that are used in CT scanning; parallel beam geometry and fan beam geometry. In the parallel beam geometry, the rays projected on the patient are parallel to each other whereas in fan beam geometry, the rays diverge from the source in the shape of a fan (Bushberg et al., 2002) as shown in Figure 7. The fan beam projections are the most commonly in used x-ray projections in the CT scanners. The X-ray tube is attached with a collimator which controls the thickness of the fan beam. This thickness (of the fan beam projection) determines the width of the tissue slide in the scanning process. It is through the collimator that the slice thickness is varied between 1mm to 10mm (Smith, n.d.). The x-ray source and detector rotate around the patient (for imaging) in a circular motion such that they always remain exactly (diametrically) opposite to each other (as shown in Figure 7). During the rotation the source keeps emitting x-rays which are attenuated after passing through the patient. For a single projection (or slice), the x-ray source and detector make a complete 360o rotation around the patient. During the rotation the detector takes a large number of snapshots of the absorbed X-ray beam at different projection angles. A single image may involve approximately 800 rays and there can be up to 1,000 different projection angles (Bushberg et al., 2002). Therefore for a single projection (one slice), the detector does nearly 800,000 transmission measurements (Bushberg et al., 2002). The scanning of a single projection generally takes around 1 sec (for axial CT scanners) (FDA, 2010). Once all the transmission measurements (complete 360o) for a projection (or slice) are completed, the motorized table moves along the axis of the gantry so that the next slice of tissues forms the projection view. The process is continued till the complete required section of the body has been scanned. In the traditional CT scanners, the table moved on to the next projection (slice) only when the scanning of the previous was completed. Such conventional type of scanning is called the axial scanning. But in modern CT scanners, called the helical or spiral CT scanners, the rotation of the x-ray source and detector is accompanied with the uniform movement of the examination table, thus producing a helical projection. The helical CT scanning has been shown in Figure 9. These modern helical CT scanners are much faster than the traditional scanners due to continuous scanning process. They have been reported to take nearly half the time for scanning as compared to the traditional CT scanner s. In order to analyze and study the cardiac structure which is under constant motion, even helical CT is ineffective. For such applications a special CT scanner with an exposure time of 50ms and a maximum exposure rate of 17 images per second are used (Smith, n.d.). These scanners, called the cine CT, freeze the cardiac motion due to extremely low exposure time resulting in a sharp image (Smith, n.d.). These scanners use electron beam to generate x-rays, thus are also known as Electron Beam Computed Tomography (EBCT). In the CT scanning process large volume of data and operations are required to be processed, which is achieved with the help of multiple computers. The detector converts the intensity measurements of the attenuated x-rays in to electrical signals. The main computer, called the hub computer processes these signals and converts them into an image. These images can then be analyzed for radiotherapy planning. Result Computed Tomography (CT) has become an invaluable medical tool. It provides detailed 3-D images of various sections of the body like pelvis, soft tissues, lungs brain, blood vessels and bones (Nordqvist, 2009). Generally, CT scanning is the preferred method of diagnosing different types of cancers like liver, lungs and pancreatic cancers (Nordqvist, 2009). The tomographic images produced by the CT scan provide specific location and size of the tumor along with the details of affected tissues in the proximity of the tumor. This is especially advantageous in planning, guiding, and monitoring therapies like radiotherapy (FDA, 2010). CT scanning has various benefits over other traditional diagnostic techniques; some of the benefits are (RadiologyInfo, 2009): It is non-invasive, painless and extremely accurate. A major advantage is the ability to identify and distinguish bones, soft tissues and blood vessels in the same image. It also provides real time images which cannot be done in conventional X-rays. This technique is fast and simple; and is extensively used to locate internal injuries after accidents. It is less sensitive towards patient movement as compared to MRI. CT scanning can be used on patients with medical implants unlike the MRI. For an effective radiation therapy treatment, it is necessary that only the tumor is irradiated while minimum damage occurs to the surrounding health (normal) body tissues (Badcock, 1982). This is achieved with the help of CT imaging technique. In a study by Badcock (1982), 186 patients with various malignancies were studied and it was found that in nearly 39% of the treatment cases CT scanning was valuable in the assessment of the radiationdose calculation (Badcock, 1982). According to his study, CT scanner resulted in an alternation in target dose by more than 5%, (as compared to the traditional methods) in 27% of the patients (Badcock, 1982). The result has been shown in the table below. The mean alternation was 6.5% of the target dose and usually resulted in reduction of dose per fraction by factors upto 35% (Badcock, 1982). Even with these advantages, the adverse affect of the ionizing x-ray radiations cannot be neglected. Various experiments and researches have consolidated the fact that ionizing radiations like x-rays, gamma rays etc have adverse effect on living tissues. Zamanian Hardiman (2005) have explained that when high energy ionizing radiations interact with living tissues they strip-off atoms and molecules from them. This disrupts the chemical reaction within the body and failure in organ functioning (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). The adverse effects of ionizing radiations were seen shortly after its discovery in 1890s, with a scientist involved in the study of radioactivity were reported with skin cancer in 1902. But is was not until 1944, that the role of radiations in causing leukemia in human was first documented, mainly in radiologists and physicists (Zamanian Hardiman, 2005). In recent years the use of x-rays has extensviely increased in medical field for diagonostic and treatment application. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, X-ray deveices are the largest source of man-made radiation exposure (US_EPA, 2007). According to NCRP Report No. 160 (2006), the average annual effective dose per individual in the US population, from all sources has increase from 1.7mSv in 1980s to 6.2mSv in 2006. This increase is mainly attributed to the striking growth of high dose medical imaging procedures that utilize x-rays and radionuclides (NCRP, 2008). Such man-made devices include X-ray machines, CT scans etc. CT scans, especially result in high dose x-ray exposure, with nealy 100 times the exposure dose as compared to standard x-ray equipments (Coach, 2008). Some of the major risks associated with CT scanning are: It is well documented that ionizing radiaitons like x-rays have the ability to cause cancer on exposure. Therefore, the CT dose in radiotherapy increase the probabilty of cancer in the future. Even though only 4% of the total x-ray examinations are CT scans, they account for more than 20% of the radiation dose to the population by medical x-rays (King Saud University, 2004). In general, the effective dose in a CT scan procedure ranges from 2 mSv to 10mSv, which is nearly equivalent to the amount of radiation that a person receive from the background exposures in three to five years (RadiologyInfo, 2009). A CT scan during preganacy make cause serious illness or even birth defects in the unborn baby (FDA, 2010). Children are more sensitive and vulnerable to x-ray exposures than the adults, therefore their CT scanning should be done only under extremely essential and necessary conditions. Women have higher risk of developing cancer in the lifetime, as compared to men under same levels of exposure (FDA, 2009). In some rare situation of high-dose prolonged radiation exposure, the x-rays can cause adverse effects like skin reddening (erythema), skin tissue injury, hair loss, cataracts etc (FDA, 2010). In a study, Sawyer et al (2009) estimated the effective dose resulting from a cone beam CT scanning for planning of radiation therapy using thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLDs) for organ dose and using International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 60 tissue weighing factor (Sawyer et al., 2009). The results obtained for effective dose from TLD measurements and ICRP 60 weighting factor, for breast, pelvis and head simulation have been shown in the table below. The scanning process results in the exposure of the normal tissues outside the treatment volume (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). It is thus important to analyze the effect that the irradiation caused by the CT scanning process has on the patients body. In a study, Waddington McKenzie (2004) analyzed the propability of developing cancer from the irradiations caused by the extended field portal imaging techniques, the results of which are given in the table below (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). In order to illustrate a real life situation, the calulations in the study were done for an average man with a height of 170 cms and weight of 70 kgs (Waddington McKenzie, 2004). Therefore, these values may change depending upon the height, weight and tumor size of the patient. Discussion Various studies have been done to statistically evaluate the effect of the ionizing radiations on the human health. These risks have severely amplified due to the rapid increase in the number of CT scans for diagnostic applications. CT scans form nearly 5% of all procedures used in diagnostic radiology in the developed countries (Wrixon et al., 2004). In U.S., nearly 70 million CT scans were done in 2007 as compared to just 3 million done in 1980 (Steenhuysen, 2009), this includes more than 4 million children in 2006 (Brenner Hall, 2007). Thus, according to the NCRP Report no. 160, the average radiation dose per person has increased from 3.6 mSv in early 1980s to 6.2 mSv in 2006 (NCRP, 2008). Steenhuysen (2009) has reported that the radiations from CT scans done in 2007 will cause 29,000 cancers and kill nearly 15,000 people in America (Steenhuysen, 2009). These stats explain the level of exposure caused by the CT scans. According to estimates by Amy Berrington de Gonzalez of the National Cancer Institute,